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Equation 1. The latter could be the case, and hence the adsorption theory could be true for Colorado shales. T h e same arguments, it is believed, would apply if kerogen were regarded as chemically loosely combined with part of the inorganic matter, as has also been proposed. Because any decision rests upon the determination of the heat of decomposition of pure kerogen in the presence of Tetralin, a t 200’ to 400’ C., such experiments are now being undertaken. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Funds for the research reported above were furnished in part by a Frederick Cottrell grant from the Research Corp., New York, N. Y., and by the Institute of Industrial Research, University of Denver. The shale used was supplied under cooperative agreement with the U. S. Bureau of Mines, Rifle, Colo. T h e authors are also indebted to Robert Hurley, University of Denver, for advice on certain of the physicochemical phenomena, and to Lora Keck and Felix Vandewiele for aid in preparing the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED
(1) Blackburn, C. O., Colo. School M i n e s Quart., 19, No. 2 (1924). (2) Bur. Mines, Petroleum and Oil Shale Experiment Station,
(3) (4)
(5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
“Analytical Methods for Use on Oil Shale and Shale Oil,” Laramie, Wyo., -4ugust 1949. Can’e, R. F., J. Soc. Chem. I n d . ( L o n d o n ) ,65, 412 (1946). Cane, R. F., “Oil Shale and Cannel Coal,” Vol. 11, p. 592, London, Institute of Petroleum, 1951. Carlson, A. J., Univ. Calif. (Berkeley) P u b . Eng., 3, 295 (1937). Craig, E. H. C., Proc. World Eng. Congr., Tokyo, 32, 1 (1929). Dodge, B. F., “Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics,” New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1944. Down, A. L., and Himus, G. W., J . I n s t . Petroleum, 27, 426-45 (1941). Dulhunty, J. A., J . Proc. R o y . SOC.N.S. W a l e s , 76, 268-74 (1943).
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Dulhunty, J. A., Proc. L i n n e a n SOC.N . S . Wales, 67, 238-48 (1942). D’yakova, M. K., Bull. acad. sci. U.R.S.S. Classe sei. tech., 1944, 258-74. Ibid., pp. 498-505. Ewell, R. H., et al., IND. ENQ.CHEM.,36, 871 (1944). Gamson, B. W., and Watson, K. M., Nutl. Petroleum News, Tech. Sect., 36, (May 3, 1944). Glasstone, S., “Textbook of Physical Chemistry,” 2nd ed., New York, D. Van Nostrand Co., 1946. Harding, E. P., IND. ENQ.CHEM.,18, 731 (1926). Hildebrand, J. H., and Scott, R. L., “The Solubility of Nonelectrolytes,” 3rd ed., A.C.S. Monograph 17, New York, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1950. Himus, G. W., Petroleum (London), 4, 9-13 (May 1941). Keenan, J. H., and Keyes, F. G., “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam,” New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1936. Kiebler, M. W., IND. ENQ.CHEM.,32, 1389-94 (1940); Gas J., 232, 433-6 (1940). Klever, W. H., and Mauch, K., “‘i;’ber den estlnndischen Olsschiefer Kukersit,” Halle, W.Knapp, 1927. hlaier, C. G., and Zimmerly, S. R., Bull. U I L L U Utah, . 14, No. 7, 62 (1924). Meissner, H. P., and Redding, E. M., IND.ENO.CHEX.,34, 521 (1942). Prien, C. H., “Oil Shale and Cannel Coal,” Vol. 11, p. 76, London, Institute of Petroleum, 1951. Seglin, L., IND. E x & CHEX., . 38, 402 (1946). Stanfield, K. E., et al., U . S . Bur. Mines, Repts Invest. 4825 (1951). Sugden, S . , “The Parachor and Valency,” London, Rutledge and Sons, 1930. Thorne, H. M.,et al., “Oil Shale and Cannel Coal,” Vol. 11, p. 301, London, Institute of Petroleum, 1951. Tunnicliff, D. D., et al., IXD.ENG.CHEJI.,ANAL.E D , 18, 710 (1946). Wagner-Jauregg, T., et al., Chem. Ber., 80, 553-7 (1947). RECEIVED for review September 15, 1952. ACCEPTED December 1, 1952. Abstracted from a thesis presented b y W. D. Sohnaokenberg in partial f u l fillment of the requirements for t h e M.S. (Ch.E.) degree, University of Denver.
(END OF SYMPOSIUM)
Future Trends in the Chemical Industry d
FRANK J. SODAY The C h e m s t r a n d Corp., Decatur, Ala.
T
H E future of the chemical industry is predicated on its ability to change the essential nature of things andto produce from available raw materials the many items required by man in his daily life on this planet. While i t has been said that “man wants but little here below,” a survey made sometime ago in this country showed t h a t the average American family owns some 10,000 different objects. The provision of these items is the main responsibility of American industry. I n contrast with the last century, which was almost wholly preoccupied with the development and perfection of mechanical devices t o improve our way of life, the present century has been designated by many as the chemical age. This has not been universally recognized, as chemical developments have been recent and largely unnoticed by the public. On surveying our industrial economy, however, one soon realizes t h a t the chemical industry is so large and has become such an intimate part of our great industrial machine t h a t accurate statistics cannot be had. It is the only industry serving all the72 basic industrial groups recognized by the U. S. Chamber of Commerce. The best estimate concerning chemistry’s present position is that i t accounts for at least 2001, of all industrial production in the United States. Less than 100 years ago, substantially all materials used by man were obtained directly from natural sources-that is, from
the plant, animal, or mineral kingdoms. As these proved t o be inadequate to meet man’s ever-expanding needs, he turned increasingly to chemistry for assistance. The first major industry t o be transformed by chemistry was that of dye manufacturing. Dyes had been obtained from natural sources since the earliest times, and the production, transportation, and sale of dyestuffs played a very important part in industry. Large areas of land were devoted to the production of certain vegetable dyes, such as indigo. Madder, from which indigo was obtained, was cultivated in many areas throughout the world, such as France and India. I n this country, it was grown extensively in many of the southern states, and for many years it was the principal agricultural product of Mississippi. But the rapidly growing world population was making increasing demands on the soil for foodstuffs, and man turned to chemistry for the provision of dyestuffs from nonagricultural sources. The brilliant researches of Sir Henry Perkins in England in the middle of the last century led to the development of a whole spectrum of dyestuffs from coal tar, thus freeing man from his dependence on the soil for dyes and revolutionizing the industry. The cultivation of madder and other dye-producing plants disappeared almost overnight. Today, 99% of all dyes used in this country are produced synthetically.
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Another stimulating development of the infant chemical industry was the provision of chemicals for agricultural uses in Germany during the 19th century, which led t o enormous increases in the production of crops. At the time of the Civil War in this country, nine persons were required on the farm to produce enough food to feed themselves and have enough left over for one city dweller. Today, by the liberal use of fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals, the American farmer feeds himself, four city people, and one person abroad. w .
GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
p1
%
Starting as a small producer of inorganic chemicals a t the turn of the century, completely overshadowed by the foreign chemical trusts, our domestic chemical industry received its first real impetus when the outbreak of World War I shut off the supply of dyestuffs and other chemicals required by industry. The industry grew rapidly in the postwar period, becoming one of the great industrial forces of the country. At the start of World War 11,the American chemical industry had reached maturity and was ready t o meet all competition on even terms. The basic civilian capacity of the industry was not largely increased during World War 11,although i t supplied the managerial talent and production know-how to build and operate government war plants worth some $3 billion. These were constructed for the production of certain scarce items, such as explosives, synthetic rubber, and ammonia. Outstanding achievements included the creation of a billion dollar synthetic rubber industry in the short period of 2 years and the provision of nearly 1,000,000 tons of additional synthetic ammonia production capacity. I n addition to the operation of war plants, the chemical industry produced from private facilities some $20 billion worth of basic chemicals, intermediates, and products during the four war years. The postwar period was one of almost explosive expansion, entailing such enormous outlay of capital t h a t for the first time the industry, which had traditionally depended on undivided profits for expansion, was forced to secure substantial loans. However, less than a quarter of all chemical expansions during this period was financed by loans, the remainder of the required funds coming from earnings and reserves. At the end of this major expansion period (1946-49), the 24 leading chemical companies had increased their total assets t o about $3.3 billion, an increase of 111% since 1939. Sales had increased from $800,000,000dollars in 1938 to $3.5 billion, and profits had increased by 125%. The latter was attained by an average increase in prices of chemical commodities of only 25% above 1939 levels, while the average for all prices had increased 115%. Plant investments had more than doubled in 10 years, capital expenditures being in excess of $1.5 billion each year since the war. Chemical stocks, with a value of $1 billion, advanced to third place in market value, being just behind utilities and oil stocks. With practically no time out for a breathing spell, the chemical industry is again engaged in another large expansion program as a part of the defense effort resulting from the Korean conflict. PRESENT STATUS OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
I n the brief span of years since the turn of the century, the chemical industry has profoundly altered our basic economy and way of life. In addition to dyes, which now are almost entirely synthetic in nature, many other large consumer fields (16)are dominated by synthetic products. Over 75% of the drugs and other medicinal items sold today are of synthetic origin, and only 5 % of the 2.3 billion pounds of plastics produced in the United States last year was derived from natural gums and resins. Over half of the 500,000,000 gallops of paint used annually is based on synthetic products. Approximately 65% of the total rubber conconsumed in this country for all purposes is synthetic, and over 20% of our textiles is derived from synthetic fibers. Nearly 1.2
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billion pounds of synthetic detergents (18) is expected t o be produced in 1952. B y 1954, the production of synthetic detergents ( 6 7 ) is expected to be approximately 3 billion pounds per year, which will account for over 80% of the package market in this field ( 1 7 ) . New products are being developed at an unprecedented rate, several of the larger companies placing fifty or more new chemicals on the market each year. Some Soy0 of sales in many chemical companies comprises products developed during the past 10 years. A recent summary indicates that over 5000 chemicals are being produced and sold in this country a t the present time. This has come about through the development of a better understanding of the underlying nature of things. During the past half century, the chemist has so perfected his knowledge of the structure of matter and the laws governing and regulating changes in composition, t h a t he can assemble the basic units according to established designs and so duplicate many natural products. Of even greater importance is his ability to create entirely new designs and thus produce materials with no counterpart in nature, giving the manufacturer entirely new building blocks with which to fabricate exciting new products for consumers. This newly developed ability has freed us from dependence on foreign sources for many items required by our expanding economy, such as rubber, which is reflected in the changing picture of scarcity in this country. During World War I, we were conscious of the shortage of finished goods, particularly those of a chemical nature, as we did not possess either the plants or the know-how for their manufacture. As a result, military procurement was concerned almost exclusively with steel, natural nitrates, cotton, wool, leather, rubber, and other natural products. During World War 11,our chief concern was in the provision of raw materials, as plant and processes were available for the manufacture of even the most complex products. There was an increased dependence on a variety of synthetic or replacement products, such as synthetic rubber, synthetic ammonia for munitions, aluminum, magnesium, and plastics. This trend has continued into the Korean conflict. Synthetic fibers, which have virtually completely displaced silk, are assisting cotton and wool in clothing our military personnel. Tin is being successfully replaced by plastics, which is also being used for a variety of objects formerly laboriously machined from metals. The past year (1951) has been marked by further sharp increases in production (48) and by the continued expansion of plant facilities on a vast scale. The impact of the chemical expansion projects announced in 1951 has been compared to that of the great railroad building programs of the past century, which opened up all sections of the country for development. For behind this emergence of the chemical industry, which is the outstanding industrial development of the century, lies the fact that chemicals are no longer mere processing aids, but have assumed the status of basic building blocks for industry. Like metals, wood, and agricultural products, chemicals are providing the starting point for a large proportion of our consumer industries. The chemical industry is approaching the halfway mark in the greatest expansion program (31, 33-38, 40,41, 43, 46, 46,49) in its history. By the end of 1952, nearly two thirds of the chemical projects authorized by the mobilization act will be completed and ready to operate. Capitaf expansion in the chemical industry was nearly $1.5 billion in 1951 (64), and over $1.5 billion will be spent during 1952 (7). Approximately three quarters of this over-all expenditure will go for expansion projects, and the remainder will be used for the modernization of existing plants. By the end of 1952, the nation’s chemical production capacity will be 12% above that of 1951, and two and one half times that of 1939. I n this connection, it is interesting to note that the average over-all rate of growth for the chemical industry has been 10% per
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year during the last quarter century, compared with an average over-all yearly rate of growth of 3'3& for all industry during the same period. Gross sales of chemicals for 1950 was $12.5 billion, which increased to $16 billion in 1951. Sales in 1952 should be even higher (6). As would be expected, the chemical process industries have shown the same trends. A total of $5.5 billion was spent for new plants and equipment in 1951, and even larger amounts are to be spent in 1952. Production increased from $43 billion in 1950 to $53 billion in 1951. The 1952 production is expected to reach $57 billion, 3Oy0 above that of 1950 (6). Chemical stocks continued to lead industrial stocks b y a wide margin. In 1948, chemicals and industrials were both close t o 125 (1935-39 = 100). By the end of 1951, chemical stocks had climbed to 240, while industrials stood at 200. Since the index period of 1935-39, the wholesale price index of all commodities (178) has increased substantially more than that of chemicals (141). This trend was reversed for the first time in 1951, when the general price rise of all wholesale products was accompanied by a somewhat sharper increase in chemical prices, due mainly to increasing raw material and labor costs. This upset balance in chemical supply and demand was short, but acute in most cases. I n some chemicals, such as chlorine and benzene, shortages will continue until the necessary expansions in production facilities have been completed. I n still others, such as sulfur, the unbalance is chronic and may have widespread repercussions throughout our industrial economy. TAXES AND THEIR EFFECT ON FUTURE EXPANSION
Future plans for the chemical industry (60)are based on the same premise which has made it an outstanding growth industry-continuing expansion (60). A recent survey shows that $1.3 billion will be spent for expansion in 1953, $1.2 billion in 1954, and the same amount in 1955. These expansion plans (66) attest, better than any words, to the solid optimism prevailing in the industry concernmg its future (11). At the same time, some disturbing trends are in evidencr ( 1 2 ) . Cash assets for the chemical and allied products industry dropped $200,000,000 last year-from $1.3 to $1.1 billion. Cost and expenses of the industry increased from $2.8 billion in the third quarter of 1950 to $3.0 billion for the same quarter in 1951 (6). Despite the indicated increase in sales of close to 2570~1951 chemical profits after taxes (10) were some 207, lower than in 1950. With the exception of 1949, net profits for the chemical industry were the lowest since 1946. This underscores the pattern of chemical operations emerging from a study of individual chemical company reports for 1951record sales and dipping profits (14). Typical are reports of tha big three, D u Pont, Carbide, and Allied. Sales were up: Du Pont by IS%, Carbide b y 22%, and Allied by 237& and earnings before taxes showed similar trends. Taxes took a large portion of these earnings. Allied had an increase of more than 1 0 0 ~ oand , all three showed lower profits: D u Pont was down b y 25% from 1950, Carbide by IS%, and Allied by 2%. These figures clearly indicate t h a t operating costs in the chemical industry are increasing, while cash absets and net profits are dropping off. This is a direct result of increasing taxation, which took 67Y0 of the total corporate profits of the chemical industry during the first 9 months of 1951. It should be emphasized, however, that this situation is not peculiar to the chemical industry, as all industry is suffering in the same manner to a greater or lesser extent ( 6 ) . This poses the question (if taxrs continue at the prevailing high rate and operating costs continue to advance) of hon- long the chemical industry will be able t o maintain its traditional practice of financing new plants and production facilities out of earnings or cash reserves. This does not seriously affect the large chemical companies,
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which account for the majority of new capital investment, as such companies still have substantial cash reserves. When these are exhausted, few will encounter any great difficulty in obtaining money from security issues or long term loans. The smaller firms, on the other hand, probably will feel the pinch if present conditions continue. As a general rule, these firms obtain most of their capital from earnings or short term loans. A survey of chemical companies involved in 1952 expansions indicates that 677, will finance entirely from profit's and reserves, 227, will borrow part of the funds required, and 11% will sell stock. For 1953-55 expansions, cempanies financing entirely from profits and reserves will be reduced to 56%; 19% will borrow part of the funds required, and 25% will sell stock (6). I n 1951, 8570 of the money earmarked for chemical plant expansion came from retained earnings, and most of the remainder came from long term loans. The trend then shifted to convertible preferred shares. B u t long term money could still be obtained by the blue chip companies : Dow borrowed $66,000,000, Monsanto $125,000,000, and Union Carbide 5300,000,000. MANPOWER SHORTAGES
A shortage of engineers and scientists, which has assumed serious proportions, may affect the growth potential of the chemical industry (86) in the near future. I n 1951, chemical companies v,-ere able t o hire less than half the chemiste and chemical engineers required for their expanding operations, and the situation promises to be worse in the future. This is a particularly important problem in the chemical industry ( 5 ) , which depends on research to an unusual extent to supply it with a constant stream of new and improved processes and products and leans heavily on engineering talent to translate research findings into finished plants. A continuing shortage of technical and engineering personnel could dry up chemical plant expansions at the source. Few industries are so dependent' 011 research as the chemical industry, and few have supported research so long and so ell. The Du Pont Co., which spent 147,000,000 on research in 1951, is typical of t,he industry as a whole. Research has responded with a constant stream of new processes and products, which have enabled the chemical industry to maintain its position as one of the foremost growth industries in the country. A prolonged curtailment of technical manpower supply could hamstring the industry. PRODUCTS IK THE LIMELIGHT
4 number of old products and some new ones made headlines duriug 1951 (51), and their influence will be felt during the current year. Perhaps no single chemical has been in the nen-s as constantly as that old mainstay of the chemical industry, sulfur ( e l ) ,which has become its number one raw material problem. I n various forms, such as sulfuric acid, it is basic to the production of agricultural chemicals, paper, rubber, metals, oils, gasoline, phenol, rayon, dyestuffs, detergents, paints, and a host of other chemical products. The production of elementary sulfur has failed to keep in step with increasing demands (24)>resulting in an industry-wide shortage during 1951 (65). During the latter half of 1952 (52), consumers were operating under voluntary allocations (51) limiting them to 80% of their 1950 requirements. Despite determined efforts to locate new deposits which could be worked by the established Frasch process, only one sulfur dome of any consequence has been discovered in the past few years (32). This deposit, located south of ?Jew Orleans, is expected t o yield 500,000 long tons per year by late 1953. An additional 1,500,000 long tons per year is expected to be obtained by 1955 from natural and refinery gases, by-product smelting operations, pyrites roasting, and new concentrating methods developed for low grade ores. Such procedures are more costly than the Frasch process, and since ample supplies of low grade sulfur ores are available, the problem is largely one of economics.
February 1953
1
c
*
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Present United States production capacity is 6,125,000 long tons, which is approximately 1,500,000 long tons less than estimated requirements. Sulfur will probably be in short supply during a t least the early part ofJ953. Chlorine production continues to climb a t a dizzy pace. Capacity at the beginning of 1951 was 2,100,000 tons per year Scheduled production capacity by the end of 1953 is 3,400,000 tons. This may result in an oversupply of caustic soda, which is a coproduct of the manufacture of chlorine, but this unbalance probably will be only temporary in nature. Several processes for the production of chlorine without the simultaneous production of caustic are being studied-some on a pilot plant or semiworks scale (6). Benzene shortages also plagued the industry during 1951, but the end is now in sight. I n 1950, 186,000,000 gallons of industrial grade benzene were produced, while 208,000,000 gallons were consumed. The 1951 consumption reached 260,000,000 gallons and would have been much higher if additional supplies could have been obtained. Consumption by 1955 is expected to be a t the rate of 400,000,000 gallons per year. This rapid increase in demand for benzene was, in large measure, due to the mushrooming production of styrene, which is now the largest consumer of benzene in the country. The 1951 requirement of benzene for styrene production was 75,000,000 gallons; by 1955 it is expected to be well over 100,000,000gallons. Increased production of phenol, aniline, synthetic detergents, nylon, D D T , and BHC (8) also contributed to the unprecedented demand for benzene. The coking industry, operating a t capacity, produced 180,000,000 gallons of benzene in 1951. Newly developed processes in the petroleum industry produced 25,000,000 gallons, and this is expected to increase to 90,000,000 gallons by the end of 1952. The suppIy will then be in balance with the demand, and additional production can readily be obtained from the petroleum industry. Synthetic rubber production was substantially increased as a result of the rearmament program. The current production rate of all types of synthetic rubber is 930,000 long tons per year. The 1952 production is expected to top the previous peak reached during World War I1 (1,000,000 long tons) and will supply 65% of the total demand for rubber. Expansions will be marked by a further conversion of GR-S plants to the cold rubber type. This improved rubber will comprise approximately 75’30 of the GR-S output (860,000 long tons per year) by the end of 1952. The industry will continue its conversion from alcohol to butylene as a.source of butadiene. Synthetic ’resins and plastics will continue their rapid .expansion, the projected 1952 production being well over 2 billion pounds. Vinyls, phenolics, and polyethylene are headed for record outputs. At least five expansion programs were under way in 1981 to increase production facilities for vinyls, polystyrene, phenolics, and polyvinyl chloride. The five major penicillin manufacturers are constructing new plants, which will result in a doubling of the 1951 production capacity. This, in turn, was triple that of 1948. Although spectacular, this is only a routine incident in the growth of the antibiotics industry (64), which started from scratch some 9 years ago and now represents well over 50% of all ethical drug sales. Antibiotics production in 1950 had a value in excess of 200,000,000 dollars. One of the major reasons for the continued growth of antibiotic production is the recently developed animal and poult r y feed supplement market. Phosphorus made inorganic history during 1951 and is now the fastfst growing item on the list. Production increased from 50,000 tons in 1940 to 180,000 tons in 1951. By 1954, the nation’s phosphorus furnaces should be producing 260,000 tons per year. Once confined to the southeastern part of the country, the trend in operations is now westward: Idaho ranks above Tennessee as a producer of phosphate rock, and more western furnaces are being constructed.
325
Look to acetylene as the starting point for an entirely new chemical industry. Many chemical technologists are of the opinion that, acetylene, particularly acetylene derived from natural gas, holds the key to future developments in the petrochemical field, one of the most rapidly growing divisions of the chemical industry. It may replace ethylene as the most important basic unsaturated hydrocarbon raw material in the chemical field. Monsanto’s plant a t Texas City, Tex., produces acetylene by the partial oxidation of natural gas. The acetylene obtained is largely converted to acrylonitrile, a chemical intermediate which is rapidly growing in importance in the synthetic fiber, rubber, and soil additives fields. Carbide and Cyanamid also are interested in acetylene-from-gas processes. Ammonia. A continuing shortage of nitrogen (9) emphasizes our growing dependence on this vital element for food and fiber production (68). At the start of World War 11, the United States had a synthetic ammonia production capacity of approximately 400,000 tons. The military explosives requirements for the prosecution of the war made it necessary to expand production, The capacity was nearly tripled by the construction of ten new plants and by additions to existing plants. By 1944, the production of ammonia had increased to 1,246,000 tons (’78). The production of military explosives was brought to an abrupt halt a t the end of the war, releasing to civilian users large quantities of fixed nitrogen. Contrary to expectations, no surpluses developed, and additional production was required to satisfy the demand. At no time since the war has sufficient ammonia been available to meet the needs of agriculture (65). This is due, in large measure, to the progressive decline of plant food reserves in the soil, which reached a critical level over wide areas of the country a t the time of the war. Since then, production has engaged in a desperate race to meet the minimum requirements of agriculture and maintain food and fiber production a t required levels. Approximately 50% of the plant food originally present in the soils of this country has been removed by continued cropping, and the removal of nitrogen by harvested crops each year still exceeds the amount added by fertilizers and manures by 80%. The net loss of plant food each year in this country is estimated a t 40,000,000 tons. Present synthetic ammonia production capacity (80)is close to 2,000,000 tons per year. Projects covered by certificates of necessity, providing for the construction of 16 new or expanded plants, will add nearly 750,000 tons to this capacity (63) by the end of this year. Agriculture consumes two thirds of available nitrogen supplies and will continue to dominate the picture. The United States Department of Agriculture states that a minimum of 120,000 tons of additional ammonia production capacity is required each year to meet the minimum food and fiber demands of our growing population. The per capita consumption of ammonia has in\ creased fourteen times in the past 20 years. Petrochemicals. One of the most significant trends during 1951 was the continuing expansion in the field of petrochemicals (67). In fact, many authorities state that the spectacular growth of the petrochemical industry (77) is one of the most important developments of the past quarter of a century. Petroleum and natural gas are rapidly becoming the basic raw materials for much of the chemical industry. Petrochemicals account for 25% of all of the chemicals being produced in this country today, and it is freely predicted that this will increase to 50% within 10 years. These are rapid strides for an industry established only a quarter of a century ago. A measure of the growing importance of this new che~picalindustry is to consider its growth curve during the past few years. The petrochemical industry had an estimated capital investment of $350,000,000 and a production rate of 3 billion pounds ef chemicals per year in 1940. Today, the capital investment has
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increased to $2 billion, and the production rate is 16 billion pounds per year. An idea of the magnitude of the raw material requirements for this industry may be had by considering that approximately 1 billion gallons (over 3,000,000 tons) of liquid gas feed stocks were required in one branch of the petrochemical industry in 1951. Despite these huge demands, it is estimated that only 1%of the petroleum and 5y0 of the natural gas produced in the country are used in the manufacture of petrochemicals. The industry rests on a firm and secure base. Petroleum developed 5.1 billion barrels of new reserves in 1951, surpassing the highest previous record by nearly a billion barrels. B s petroleum production (withdrawals from reserves) amounted t o 2.5, billion barrels, the over-all reserves were increased by 2.6 billion barrels. I n other words, for every barrel of crude oil withdrawn from the ground in 1951, two new ones were found. Proved reserves now stand a t 32.2 billion barrels, the highest on record and two and one half times the 1936 reserves of 13 billion barrels. The major portion of these reserves is located in the South, particularly in the Southwest. Texas alone has over half (18.2 billion barrels) of the proved reserves, and the South as a whole has 70%. Southern production of petroleum accounts for two thirds of the nation’s total. The nation’s natural gas reserves now amount to 193.8 trillion cubic feet. The net gain during the year was 8.2 trillion cubic feet, the second largest on record despite a record breaking production of 8 trillion cubic feet. The production of natural gas in the South is 75% of the nation’s total and approximately 80% of the reserves are located in the South. I n this connection, it should be pointed out that coal is making a determined bid to retain its dominating position as a supplier of basic raw materials for the chemical industry. The U. S. Bureau of iMines has developed a process for the conversion of coal to liquid hydrocarbons, with the simultaneous production of substantial proportions of aromatic hydrocarbons and other basic chemicals. Carbide has just announced the commercial development of a method for the production of basic chemicals from coal by an entirely new process. Coal, the broad base on which tke organic chemical industry has been developed, is not ready to be counted out. THE CHEiMICAL INDUSTRY TURNS SOUTH
With petrochemicals as a base, a new chemical empire is rapidly growing in the South (105). The concentration of petrochemical plants (16) in the Southwest (more than 500 are located along the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast alone) justifies classification of the petrochemical industry as a southern industry ( 7 7 ) . Over 85% of the total petrochemical production facilities in the United States is concentrated along the Gulf Coast within a radius of 200 miles from Houston (bb). Because petrochemicals are admirable building blocks, the majority (59) of the new synthetic chemical industries (104) are located in the South. Over 80% of the synthetic rubber industry (d6) is located in the South, and over 50% of the country’s synthetic ammonia production capacity is located in the same area. Kearly three quarters of the recently announced expansions in the ammonia field will be constructed in the South. And the new synthetic fiber industry (93) is almost wholly a southern industry (98). By 1950, the South had %yoof the chemical manufacturing plants in the country; 32.5a/, of all persons engaged in the chemical industry; 31.6% of chemical income, payrolls, and profits; and 32% of the chemical sales of the country (42). Substantially, every large chemical company, including Du Pont, Carbide and Carbon, Allied, Monsanto, and DOW,now has one or more plants in the South (99). As a clear indication of the trend, Du Pont has nearly half its total investments and inventories in the South (103). Nor is this all: Over 5070 of the chemical industry’s initial
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plant expansion program for 1952, covered by certificates of necessity and amounting t o $600,000,000 (26), d l be located in the South. The southern chemical industry (27) is well on its way to become the chief producer of chemicals in the country. This is but one aspect of the industrial revolution (105) sweeping the southland (47) and making it the fastest growing industrial area (44) in the country ( 7 9 ) . As an average, seven new plants have opened their gates in the South during every working day for the past 10 years, creating over 1,125,000 new jobs in southern industry. During 1951, the South added one multimillion dollar industrial plant each working day, more than 300 major plants, valued a t $3 billion in 12 months. SYNTHETIC FIBERS
The 1930’s saw the rise of the synthetic organic chemical industry in this ccuntry, and the next decade witnessed equally impressive developments in synthetic rubber and plastics. The present decade is destined to be one in which synthetic fibers will play the outstanding role. At the present time, the synthetic fiber industry exceeds all other branches of the chemical industry in rapidity of growth and possibilities for the future (80). Until late in the last century, the fibers available for the covering, warmth, and adornment of mankind were only four in number-namely, cotton, wool, silk, and linen. From the earliest times until the present, these fine fibers so generously provided by nature were sufficient t o meet all our needs. But with the further development of the machine age, with its emphasis on productivity and the large scale manufacture of what had once been regarded as luxury items, an insatiable appetite for more and better textiles was created. The feminine wardrobe, which had been restricted to the commoner fibers for all but the favored few, demanded increasing quantities of costly and exotic garments. Both the Colonel’s Lady and Judy O’Grady wanted a pair of silk stockings, and it T V ~ Bup to industry t o provide them. As early as 1664 Robert Hooke, the brilliant British physicist, had predicted the eventual development of artificial silk. Despite sporadic attempts to fulfill this prophecy, nothing concrete resulted until Count Chardonnet in France bent his keen mind t o the task in the latter part of the last century. Soting that a spaghetti machine extruded a plastic mass in the form of large filaments, he reasoned that if a solution of the proper composition could be forced through very fine orifices, a synthetic fiber would result. An ether-alcohol solution of nitrocellulose pumped through minute openings was the basis for his first successful manufacturing operation in 1891. Synthetic fibers had a t long: last been produced. Sold under the name of artificial silk, these semisynthetic fibers were an instant success in a world hungry for more luxurious fabrics than the silk worm could produce. Although some of the products initially placed on the market were undeniably poor in quality, constant research improved their appearance and developed them into the desirable rayon (and acetate) products so familiar to us today. The first plant for the production of rayon in this country was constructed a t Marcus Hook in 1911 by the American Viscose Corp. and is still in operation. By 1930, rayon accounted for appr6ximately 5% of the textile fibers sold in this country (89). Present consumption (84) is 1.25 billion pounds, equivalent t o 18.5% of our total fiber requirements (1951). Like the cotton textile industry, the production of rayon is predominantly a southern industry. Approximately 70% of the nation‘s rayon production capacity (86) is in the South, and contemplated new plant installations recently announced will increase this proportion even further. This is a logical location for. the industry as the basic raw material is cellulose in the form of cotton linters or wood pulp, both of which are available in almost unlimited quantities in the South. Producers of wood pulp are keenly aware of the fact that 43y0 of the total land area of the South is in forest.
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It is noteworthy that the advent of rayon did not result in any marked displacement of other fibers in the textile industry but rather encouraged their use. Silk continued to be used in undiminished quantities until the outbreak of World War I1 effectively stopped all imports. A total of 29,200,000 pounds of silk was consumed in this country in 1920, compared with 35,800,000 pounds in 1940. The same situation prevailed with respect to cotton, the per capita consumption increasing from 17.7 pounds in 1930 t o 26.6 pounds in 1950. I n other words, increasing consumption of synthetic fibers had resulted in a corresponding increme in the consumption of natural fibers (39). This follows the well-known merchandising principle that the stimulation of sales in a given field by promotional activities relating t o new and improved products frequently will result in increased sales for established items in the same field. Rayon is a semisynthetic fiber in which the basic molecular structure is synthesized by nature in the form of cellulose. This cellulose, in the form of cotton linters or purified wood fibers, is altered by physical or chemical processes, followed by dissolving and spinning, to form the rayon of commerce. I n 1927, the D u Pont Co. inaugurated a fundamental research program which was to result in the production of the first true synthetic fiber, a fiber composed of molecules entirely formed by the hands of man according to a prearranged pattern, starting with chemical raw materials. A whole new industry was to be born. Nylon, the first wholly man-made fiber, was placed on the market by D u Pone in 1939. An enormous amount of time, labor, money, and technical skill had gone into its development. It has been said that the production of the first pair of nylon stockings took 10 years of time, enormous laboratory facilities, and $70,000,000. The modern synthetic fiber industry is a field for giants and can be entered only with great risk and courage. Probably no major product has ever timed its entry into the industrial field so well. Nylon, which possessed many of the properties of silk, was immediately pressed into military use as soon as silk supplies were cut off as a result of war with Japan. Without nylon for the fabrication of parachute silk, glider tow ropes, and a thousand and one other military items, our war effort would have been severely handicapped. At the end of the war, the pent up demand for nylon knew no bounds. War surplus parachutes were cut up to make dresses and other articles of apparel, and nylon waste of all kinds w~ts eagerly snatched up. Du Pont has made every effort to keep production and demand in some semblance of balance and is now engaged in the eighth major expansion of nylon production facilities (62) since the war. Even this has been insufficient to supply the demand, and whole fields of application have been neglected because of the impossibility of diverting any of the product from established outlets. More recently, Chemstrand has been licensed to manufacture nylon and is constructing the first completely integrated plant ever built for this purpose a t Pensacola, Fla. The majority of the raw materials required by D u Pont’s nylon operations come from plants located a t Orange aAd Victoria, Tex. Spinning plants are located a t Seaford, Del.; Martinsville, Va.; and Chattanooga, Tenn. Nylon is regarded by many textile experts as the outstanding fiber among all natural and synthetic fibers. Despite this, the textile industry has demanded additional new fibers having a whole spectrum of unusual properties around which new fabrics and styles can be developed for the discriminating retail trade. As not all of the properties required were available in natural fibers or in the synthetic fibers already on the market, large research and development programs were initiated by chemical and fiber companies to meet these demands. The fruits of these endeavors have been making the. headlines (99) for the past 2 years, ushering in a new era in an industry older than the pyramids. With the broad range of properties
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(73) available in the new synthetics (74) and the almost infinite varieties that can be created by the skillful blending of these new fibers with natural fibers and the established synthetic fibers, the textile industry is looking forward confidently to the development of a host of new apparel and other consumer items in which new styling, comfort, and durability standards will be attained. For the chief consumer appeal of these new synthetics is that they will bring the quality associated with the luxury fibers in the past within the reach of everyone (23). Judy O’Grady, who wanted a pair’of silk stockings, will end up with a sparkling new outfit fit for a movie queen. So intense has been the public’s interest in these new fibers that many, such as Acrilan, Dacron, dynel, and Orlon, became household words before they appeared on the market in any substantial quantities. And the end is not in sight, as other chemical and textile companies get on the bandwagon (85). Acrilan, Orlon, and dynel are acrylonitrile polymers or copolymers (21). Acrylonitrile is produced by Cyanamid a t Warners, N. J., by Monsanto at Texas City, Tex., and by Carbide and Carbon at Institute, W. Va. Cyanamid has announced plans for the construction of another acrylonitrile plant near New Orleans, La., and has received governmental approval for the project. I n addition to competition between synthetic rubber (Buna N type) and the various acrylic fibers for available acrylonitrile supplies, the picture has been further complicated by rapid developments in the soil conditioner field. While acrylonitrile production facilities are being expanded to meet these new requirements, the actual and potential value of the respective end products undoubtedly will exert a considerable influence on the allocation of acrylonitrile production. Acrilan (69),Chemstrand’s acrylic fiber, is being manufactured in a plant designed for the production of 30,000,000 pounds of staple Acrilan per year a t Decatur, Ala. D u Pont’s Orlon plant (68) for the production of continuous filament yarn is located a t Camden, S. C. An additional plant has been constructed at the same location for the production of Orlon staple fiber. Carbide and Carbon has a dynel plant a t Charleston, W. Va., and has announced plans for the construction of a much larger plant at Spray, N. C. Dacron is a polyester fiber, presumably derived from the reaction of teraphthalic acid with ethylene glycol. A similar fiber is being produced on a small scale in England under the name of Terylene. D u Pont is constructing a large plant for the production of Dacron a t Kinston, N. C. It is understood that this plant will be in full production during 1953. Although produced by diff ererft companies and by different processes, these new synthetic fibers (72) share certain properties (203). They have excellent warmth and warm-to-the-touch factors and hence should find widespread application in the apparel field, such as in men’s and women’s suitings and outerwear, in blankets, and in pile fabrics. They are not attacked by moths, mold, mildew, or insects, which is of great consumer interest in view of the $100,000,000annual loss resulting from moth damage alone in this country. These fibers do not absorb moisture to any appreciable extent and hence garments fabricated from them can be given semipermanent heat-set creases. This factor also contributes to their wrinkle resisting properties. They have low specific gravities, which results in bulk without weight for excellent covering power. With these desirable properties as a base, each fiber then develops its own individuality through the possession of certain unique properties (207), such as ease of dyeing (81) and processability, unusual styling characteristics, and desirable hand. Each has important contributions (94) t o make to the style-conscious and quality-conscious textile market. The consumption of true synthetic fibers in this country in 1951 (96) was 210,000,000pounds, equivalent to 3% of our total fiber
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consumption of 6.9 billion pounds (88). Synthetic fiber production (59) is expected to increase to 500,000,000 pounds in 1958 and t o 750,000,000 pounds in 1960. The latter (92) will represent a n estimated 10% of our total textile requirements. The new synthetic fibers are derived almost entirely from natural gas, or petroleum, and air. Kylon also is obtained from the same basic raw materials. Using the acrylics, the fastest growing fiber family, as an example, acrylonitrile is first manufactured from natural gas b y a series of four reactions. The light strawcolored liquid then is shipped to the synthetic fiber plant, where it is polymerized to form a solid material composed of long, threadlike molecules. The polymer then is dissolved in a suitable solvent, pumped through minute orifices, dried, and cut to size. The synthetic fiber industry is almost exclusively a southern industry ( 7 1 ) . With one or two exceptions, all the synthetic fiber plants now in operation or in the course of construction are located in the South, and all the recently announced new plants (95) are t o be built in the same area. The South, in fact, is the only logical location for the industry. The basic raw materials for the production of synthetic fibers are obtained from the petrochemical plants situated on the Texas Gulf Coast, and the synthetic fibers so produced are converted to finished textiles in the spinning, weaving, and finishing mills located in the Southeast (SO). Nearly 80% of the cotton spindles in the country are located in the South, and plants in the woolen and worsted industry are moving to the same area in ever-increasing numbers. The synthetic and semisynthetic fiber industries ( 1 0 6 ) already have grown to large proportions ( 9 1 ) . Total sales are in excess of $1 billion, and plant investments have almost reached the same amount. Raw material purchases amount to $500,000,000 per year, and the yearly payroll is in excess of $250,000,000. Synethetic fibers have exceeded all other branches of the chemical process industries in rapidity of growth, and its growth potential for the next decade is almost unlimited (90). It has been freely predicted that the manufacture of synthetic fibers will become one of the South’s most important industries. THE NEED FOR SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Synthetic fibers are required in ever-increasing quantities (76) to clothe the people in the world because of the increasing competition betv-een food and fiber crops for the available land. The past 3 centuries have witnessed a phenomenal growth in world population; estimated at 400,000,000 in 1640, it is now approximately 2.25 billion and is increasing a t the rate of 1% per year. Thifi has been accompanied by an equally rapid decline in the amount of land adapted to food and fiber production because of improper use and overcultivation. The available arable land on the globe is now estimated at not more than 2.5 billion acres, or slightly more than 1 acre per person. As a result, over half of the people in the world go to bed hungry each night ( 1 ) . The world production (93) of the four principal textile fiberscotton, rayon, wool, and silk--was 18.25 billion pounds in 1950, which is identical with the world production (98) of the same fibers in 1936, despite an increase in the production of synthetic fibers from about 350,000,000 to 3.5 billion pounds during the same period ( 7 6 ) . As trTorld population has increased substantially during this period, the over-all fiber supply (a) would have been inadequate to take care of the needs of the people (3)if the production of synthetic fibers (99) had not increased substantially during the same period. I n the United States, natural fibers seem to be approaching the upper limit of productivity ( 8 2 ) because of increased competition with food crops. I n 1961, a n all-out effort was made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture to ensure the production of 17,000,000 bales of cotton. Despite every inducement, only 15,000,000bales were produced. The 1952 quota has been set a t 16,000,000 bales, but the U. S. Department of Agriculture estimates t h a t only 15,000,000 will be harvested. Diversifica-
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tion in the cotton belt, with rapidly increasing conversion of cotton acreage to food crops and cattle, is the reason for declining cotton production in most areas (97) I n the wool industr), the same situation ( 4 ) is encountered but in a more serious form. For the fifth consecutive year, world wool consumption has exceeded production. Since the end of World War 11, wool consumption has exceeded wool production by 1.5 billion pounds. This situation is brought into sharp focus by trends in the United States. I n 1870, there were as many sheep as there were persons in this country40,000,000 of each. By 1950, the human population had increased to over 150,000,000 but the sheep population had declined to 28,000,000. I n other words, the ratio between sheep and people in the United States had declined from 1: 1in 1870 to 1: 5 in 1950. As a result, the major portion of our wool re4uirements must be imported. I n 1950, we consumed 636,000,000 pounds of wool but produced only 230,000,000 pounds. This meant that 2 out of every 3 pounds of wool consumed in this country was produced in other countries. The consumption of wool (87) in this country in 1951, as a proportion of total fiber consumption, was the smallest in over 30 years, a direct result of limited supply and high prices. Nor is this all. The production of domestic wool has been declining for the last decade, and the U. S. Department of Agriculture is unable t o offer any hope of substantial impiovement in this condition in the foreseeable future. -4shortage of shepherds plagues the sheep industry in the western states, where most of the domestic wool is grown, and despite desperate measures to remedy this situation, such as the importation of Basque herdsmen from northern Spain, no satisfactory remedy has been found. I n addition, seven of the western sheep-growing states have been invaded by a poisonous weed, which has virtually wiped out the sheep population over large areas. Despite prompt and energetic measures taken by the U.S.D.A. during the past 3 years to control this pest, no practical remedy is in sight. As a result of these and other factors, the U.S.D.A. reports that the lamb crop for 1952 will be 5% under normal. Additional quantities of fibers must be provided to meet the needs of the growing population in this country, which is increasing a t the rate of 7400 per day, or 2,750,000 per year. This increased fiber production must come from the spithetic fiber industry, as the quantity of land available for natural fiber production is steadily declining. It requires approximately 21/2 acres of land per person t o maintain our present standard of living. By 1955, it is estimated that there will be less than 21j2 acre8 of arable land for each person in this country because of increasing population and declining acreage resulting from improper land use and erosion. The pressure for foodstuff production then will reduce even further the acreage available for growing fibers. The 1950 consumption of fibers in this country was 6.8 billion pounds, equivalent t o a per capita consumption of 40 pounds (27 pounds of cotton, 9 pounds of synthetic fibers, and 4 pounds of m-001). At this rate of consumption, 100,000,000pounds of additional fibers will be required each year to meet the textile requirements of our growing population. Increasing amounts undoubtedly also will be required to take care of increased per capita consumption of fibers. The per capita consumption of fibers in this country was 20 pounds in 1930, 30 pounds in 1940, and 40 pounds in 1950. These figures highlight the vast expansion which must take place in our industrial economy (101) to provide fibers ( 1 0 2 ) t o meet our essential needs. As an example, the Ghemstrand Corp. is providing $150,000,000 dollars for the annual production of 80,000,000 pounds of synthetic fibers (30,000,000 pounds of Acrilan plus 50,000,000 pounds of nylon), which will be insufficient t o meet the requirements of the 2,750,000 people who will be added to our population this year. I n view of these considerI
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
ations, the synthetic fiber industry can look forward with confidence to playing an increasingly important role in our industrial economy. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The statistical data relating to the production, sale, and distribution of chemicals contained in this paper have been obtained from a large number of articles appearing in various journals, magazines, newspapers, and trade publications during the past year. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the authors of these articles for the use of this information. REFERENCES u
(1) Birmingham News, Sec. E, page 1 (Sept. 7, 1951). Can. TextiZeJ., 68,No. 7, 21 (1951). Zbid., p. 41. Zbid., 68,No. 8,32 (1951). C h m . Eng., 59, No. 1, 106 (1952). Ibid., 59, NO.2, 143-90 (1952). Chem. W e e k , 70,No. 5,7 (1952). (8) Zbid., p. 49. (9) Ibid., 70,No. 6,51 (1952). (10) Zbid., 70,No. 8 , s (1952). (11) Zbid., 70,No. 8,21 (1952). (12) Zbid., 70, No. 9, 9 (1952). (13) Zbid., 70,No. 10, 9 (1952). (14) Zbid., 70,No. 11,15 (1952). (15) Zbzd., 70, No. 12, 13 (1952). (16) Ibid., 70,No.13,54 (1952). (17) Ibid., 70,No. 17,47 (1952). (18) Zbid., 71,No. 6,39 (1952). (19) Zbid., 71,No. 9, 10 (1952). (20) Zbid., p. 28. (21) Zbid., 71,No. 14,55 (1952). (22) Coronet, p. 38 (July 1952). (23) Daly, J. A., M f g . Record, 120, No. 10, 40 (1951). (24) Fish, Sidney, Zbid., 120, No. 9, 36 (1951). (25) Zbid., 120,No. 10, 36 (1951). (26) Ibid., 121, No. 4, 60 (1952). (27) Zbid., 121, No. 5, 36 (1952). (28) Fortune, p. 92 (March 1952). (29) Journal & Sentinel, Winston-Salem, N. C., Sec. C (June 22,
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
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1952). (30) Love, F. S., Teztile Bull., 78, No. 9, 131 (1952). (31) Mfg. Record, 120,No. 9, 9 (1951). (32) Zbid.? p. 43. (33) Ibid., 120,No. 10, 9 (1951). (34) Ibid., 120,No. 11.16 (1951). (35) Ibid., 120,No. 12, 13 (1951). (36) Zbid., 121,No. 1, 13 (1952). (37) Zbid., 121,N o . 2, 13 (1952). (381 Ibid.. 121.No. 3.13.38 (1952). . . . (39j z m . ; p. 44. (40) Ibid., 121,No. 4.20 (1952). (41) Ibid., 121,No. 5, 13 (1952). (42) Ibid., p. 32. (43) Zbid., 121,No. 6,13,40 (1952). (44) Ibid., p. 37. (45) Zbid., 121,No 7 , 13, 32 (1952).
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(46) Ibid., 121,No. 8 , 13,40 (1952). (47) Ibid., p. 34. (48) Zbid., 121,No. 9, 7 (1952). (49) Ibid., p. 15. (50) N e w Yorlc T i m e s (March 10,1952). (51) Oil,P a i n t D r u g Reptr., 161, No. 4,4 (1952). (52) Ibid., 161,No. 5 , 5 (1952). (53) Ibid., 161,No. 9, 4 (1952). (54) Ibid., p. 7. (55) Zbid., 161, No. 11,4 (1952). (56) Ibid., 161,No. 16, 4 (1952). (57) Ibid., p. 5. (58) Ibid., 161,No.17,3 (1952). (59) Ibid., 162,No. 1 , 3 (1952). (60)Ibid., p. 5. (61) Ibid., 162,No. 4 , 3 (1952). (62) Ibid., p, 4. (63) Ibid., 162,No. 6 , 3 (1952). (64) Ibid., p. 4. (65) Ibid., p. 5. (66) Zbid., 162,No. 7,3 (1952). (67) Ibid., 162,No. 8 , 3 (1952). , (68) Rayon and Synthetic Teztiles, 33, N o . 1, 40 (1952) (69) Ibid., p. 42. (70) Ibid., 33, No. 3, 50 (1952). (71) Ibid., p. 99. (72) Ibid., 33, No. 4, 116 (1952). (73) Ibid., 33,No. 5,35 (1952). (74) Zbid., p. 36. (75) Ibid., 33,No. 7,49 (1952). (76) Skinner’s Silk & Rayon Record, 845 (July 1952). (77) Soday, F. J., Analyst, 3rd Quart. (1951). (78) Zbid., 4th Quart. (1951). (79) Soday, F. J., J . Southern Research, 3, No. 6. 13 (1951) (80) Ibid., 4, No. 1,22 (1952). (81) TextiZeInd., 116,No. 1, 194 (1952). (82) Ibid., 116,No. 3, 165 (1952). (83) Ibid., 116,No.4,112 (1952). (84) Ibid., 116,No. 6,203 (1952). (85) Ibid., 116,N o . 7,90 (1952). (86) Teztile Organon, 22, No. 12, 196 (1951). (87) Ibid., p. 199. (88) Ibid., 23,No. 1, 1 (1952). (89) Ibid., 23,No. 2,49, 54 (1952). (90) Ibid., 23,No. 3.. 69 (1952). . . (91) Ibid.; p. 73. (92) Ibid., 23,No. 4,86 (1952). (93) Ibid., 23,No. 6, 114 (1952). (94) Ibid., 23,No. 7, 136 (1952). (95) Ibid., 23,No. 8,151 (1952). (96) Zbid., 23, No. 9,166 (1952). (97) Teatile World, 102,No.2, 109 (1952). (98) Zbid., 102,No. 3, 280 (1952). (99) Zbid., 102,No. 6,136 (1952). (100) Zbid., 102,No.7 , 102 (1952). (101) Zbid., 102,No. 9, 71 (1952). (102) Thomas, P. M.,TeztiEe World, 102,No.2, 108 (1952). (103) T i m e (Dec. 10,1951). (104) Walker, C. R., Mfg. Record, 120,No. 10, 35 (1951). (105) Ibid., 121,No. 1,28 (1952). (106) Whitcomb, L. B., Can. TextileJ., 68,N o . 11,51 (1951). (107) Woodruff, J. A., Ibid., 101,N o . 7, 126 (1951). RECEIVED for review May 19, 1952.
ACCEPTEDNovember 17, 1952.
