Environmental t News Tracking POPs across the planet
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division. No monitoring stations or regional agreements for gathering monitoring data exist in those areas, she points out. “Due to the rapid response of air concentrations to changes in primary emissions, the atmosphere is expected to be a partic ularly useful sentinel of the ‘effectiveness’ of the [Stockholm] Convention,” the researchers write. The data fulfill the needs of the ELVAR ASTR ADSSON, tom harner
team of scientists from North America and Europe is publishing the most comprehensive analysis yet of global concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in air in this issue of ES&T (pp 4867–4873). Although some of the data have been presented at scientific conferences, this is the first time the information is being published in a peerreviewed journal.
The new data on persistent organic pollutants in air were collected at 42 passive sampling stations on 7 continents, including ones at Iceland’s Vestmann Islands (left) and Whistler, British Columbia, Canada (right).
The researchers present information about levels of POPs in the air at 42 sites on 7 continents. In addition to the “dirty dozen” POPs targeted by the Stockholm Convention, they provide data about some emerging contaminants under consideration for inclusion in the treaty, including the polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants and the pesticide endosulfan. “It is very valuable and important that there is a way to expand the network of sampling sites because, at a global level, there is still a lack of field data,” says Martin Scheringer of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology’s Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering. The data fill in important gaps identified by the parties to the Stockholm treaty, such as Africa and Asia, adds Cheryl Heathwood, the chief of Environment Canada’s hazardous air pollutant research
convention in terms of comparability because the same sampler type and method were used to obtain them, says the paper’s corresponding author, Tom Harner of Environment Canada’s science and technology branch. The sites were chosen to collect data on concentrations in urban and rural agricultural areas, at remote “background” locations far from human and agricultural activities, and at the North and South Poles, adds the paper’s first author, Karla Pozo of Environment Canada. Simple, passive sampling devices called PUF (polyurethane foam) disks, which require no electricity to operate, were used to collect the data. They look a bit like flying saucers and cost between $25 (when the scientists construct them themselves) and $100 (the going rate for professionally manufactured devices from Tisch
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Environmental). Such passive air samplers are “becoming an official method for looking at spatial patterns and temporal trends of POPs,” Harner says. “In general, the results agree with what we know about use patterns of the target chemicals,” Harner says. As expected, the POPs found at some of the greatest concentrations were PCBs. The highest levels were detected at urban sites. The samples collected in Manila had a total of 2800 pg/m3 of all the 48 PCBs analyzed in the study. Most of the unexpectedly high concentrations reported in the study are for pesticides banned by the POPs treaty. The researchers detected high levels of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) at Chengdu, China (145 pg/m3 -HCH; 68 pg/m3 -HCH); De Aar, South Africa (117 pg/m3 -HCH; 67 pg/m3 -HCH); Harbin, China (132 pg/m3 -HCH); and Georgia, U.S. (102 pg/ m3 -HCH). The researchers found notably high concentrations of chlordane (338 pg/m3) in the Philippines, and high levels of dieldrin (189 pg/m3) at Las Palmas, Canary Islands. They also report elevated concentrations of heptachlor at Bahia Blanca, Argentina, and the Philippines. The data on the levels of airborne PBDEs in the new paper have not been presented previously, according to the researchers. Although the levels of airborne PBDEs are generally greatest near urban sites, as expected, the researchers found the highest concentrations at an agricultural site in Georgia, U.S. (24 pg/m3). The next highest concentrations were reported for California (19 pg/m3), Kuwait City (17 pg/m3), and Toronto (10 pg/m3). PBDEs are considered candidate POPs by the © 2006 American Chemical Society
were at a site in California (232 pg/ m3), where DDT has been banned since 1972. “The issue of emission of DDT and other legacy pesticides .. . from previously contaminated fields is an important one. It helps to explain why we continue to see these chemicals in the global atmosphere,” Harner says. —KELLYN BETTS
Efforts to stop groundwater pollution disappoint
USDA
Ten years after farmers adopted strategies to halt groundwater contamination, nitrogen is still polluting an aquifer that flows beneath the western border of Canada and the U.S., according to research published in the August 1 issue of ES&T (pp 4626–4623). Scientists call the work a case study that highlights how voluntary programs provide real benefits to farmers but do little to protect groundwater. “Almost any country you go to has some nitrate problems with their groundwater,” says the study’s lead author, Leonard Wassenaar, with Environment Canada. Governments handle this pollution by coaxing farmers into voluntary strategies called best management practices. Typically, scientists from university extension services will
Raspberry farmers switched to inorganic fertilizers instead of using chicken manure, but the aquifer is still being polluted.
advise growers on methods to lower fertilizer use and keep crop yields high. Wassenaar and colleagues studied the Abbotsford–Sumas aquifer, which supplies water to >100,000 people along Canada’s border with Washington State. Poultry and dairy farms located above the aquifer generate large quantities of manure. In the past, the manure was often stockpiled or used to fertilize the region’s raspberry farms. Because raspberries are so valuable, growers routinely applied 7× more nitrogen from manure and fertilizers than the plants needed. Today, many water wells that draw from the aquifer contain nitrate concentrations that exceed the drinking-water standard of 45 ppm (nitrate) or 10 ppm (nitrogen). In the mid-1990s, farmers voluntarily altered their practices and began composting manure and selling it outside the watershed as fertilizer. Raspberry farmers also started spreading less manure on fields and shifted to inorganic fertilizers, which plants use more efficiently. Government officials thought these changes would lessen the amount of nitrate leaching into the aquifer, but they were wrong. Because rocks in the same aquifer vary according to their porosity and permeability, ground-
News Briefs Guidelines for purifying water
To help small water districts and their customers make smart choices, the U.S. EPA released general guidelines for technology, maintenance, and operations. The agency points out conditions that make technologies less efficient in removing contaminants such as arsenic and uranium. Among the methods reviewed for treating at the tap, EPA finds reverse osmosis is feasible. But the technology is still under review for removing nitrate, a contaminant that particularly affects infants; distillation may be a better method. EPA also presents numerous case studies. For example, one city chose reverse osmosis. The technology was not efficient because of the mix of contaminants present—and because residents sometimes did not maintain their devices. Go to http://epa.gov/safe water/smallsys/ssinfo.htm#two.
Is your city sustainable?
When it comes to sustainable urban growth, Portland, Ore., comes out on top of the 50 largest U.S. cities. So conclude the producers of Sus tainLane.com, an online community that focuses on sustainable living. The group looked at public transportation, farmers’ markets, and even the number of U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED-certified buildings per capita. Resource availability can vary across the U.S., so to ensure standardization, the reviewers tried to evaluate similar metrics for all 50 cities. For example, they did not consider water conservation projects, even though such measures are more important to desert cities. However, they did factor in standardized air quality measurements from the U.S. EPA.
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Stockholm treaty. In some cases, the evidence presented in the new paper suggests that the emissions were due to new uses of the banned POPs, but the new data also highlight the importance of old sources. For example, the highest levels of p,p´DDE, the compound that DDT is converted to in the environment,
Environmentalt News water does not mix completely. So, water quality can vary widely across a single aquifer. Wassenaar and colleagues analyzed tritium and helium isotopes to date the water samples across a 10-year span. They found that nitrate concentrations remained the same in water that entered the aquifer from 1993 to 2004; this proves that practices to curb water pollution had no effect. But when they analyzed the nitrate isotopes, they discovered that the 15N signal in the nitrate was decreasing over time. This indicated that inorganic fertilizer, not manure, was the
source of nitrate pollution. “I don’t think that we ever foresaw that getting rid of manure would lead to this,” says Wassenaar. “I’ve known for some time that these practices are not working, but this is not well known by other people in agriculture,” says George Kraft, a professor of water resources at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point. This study, he says, nails down the facts. Kraft says that best management practices to limit nitrate pollution narrowly focus on using fertilizers more efficiently. Although these practices do help farmers, any
Pinpointing where plants store arsenic Plants such as the fern Pteris vittata can take up toxic substances and store them, a quality that makes them attractive for cleaning up polluted sites. New X-ray images, shown here and published in this issue of ES&T (pp 5010–5014), reveal how this particular fern sequesters arsenic. The images show that the fern transforms arsenate (AsO43−) into the even more toxic arsenite (H2AsO3−) in its leaves, not in its roots as previously thought. It also tucks the arsenite away inside its cell vacuoles; this may be a coping
mechanism against arsenite’s toxicity. Exactly how the plant transforms the arsenic remains unclear, but the researchers who captured the new pictures say that their technique (which uses synchrotron radiation at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) may be the most precise yet in showing where and in what forms the fern stores arsenic. The team mapped live plants and single-cell-thick gametophytes by hitting them with microscopic X-ray beams at different energy levels. Different arsenic forms “show up” at different energies, provid-
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added benefit, such as reducing groundwater pollution, is really just an afterthought. “My experience has always been that the focus is on the economics,” he says. David Rudolph, a professor of hydrogeology at the University of Waterloo (Canada) agrees. Voluntary programs, as implemented in most parts of the world, need to be modified, he says. Fertilizer is so cheap that farmers have little economic incentive to limit their use, and clean-water regulations mostly protect rivers and streams rather than groundwater. —PAUL D. THACKER
ing “a whole picture,” says Graham George of the University of Saskatchewan (Canada). “When you do it this way, features kind of pop out of the map,” says Ingrid Pickering, George’s colleague and the first author of the work. The results are “of interest from the standpoint of fundamental knowledge as well as for the use of plants to remediate sites contaminated with arsenate,” says Bob Buchanan, a molecular plant biologist at the University of California, Berkeley. Deciphering the fern’s behavior could be useful in genetically modifying plants for cleanup purposes, the team notes. —NAOMI LUBICK
The absence of a clear carbon policy in the U.S. poses a dilemma for electricity producers: Should they invest in conventional, carbonbelching, coal-fired power plants or spend extra on coal-gasification plants that can be retrofitted to capture and store carbon? Recent announcements by top officials with two of the largest power companies that they are building both kinds of plants hint that they are hedging their bets for now. But increasing public scrutiny of CO2 emissions, new state policies, and quiet talk among the power companies of the need for national carbon regulation mean that rapid change in the coal-fired electricity industry could be on the way, several experts say. Officials with Duke Energy announced on June 2 that they are seeking approval to build two conventional, pulverized-coal power plants in North Carolina. At the same time, the company is pursuing permits to construct a 600-MW integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant in Indiana, says Tom Williams, public affairs manager for Duke Energy. An IGCC plant partially burns coal, water, and oxygen to produce syngas, a combination of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Although IGCC plants cost 20% more to build than the traditional, pulverized-coal plants, it is cheaper and easier to later add carbon-capture and -sequestration technologies to IGCC plants, notes Scott Klara with the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Energy Technology Laboratory. Meanwhile, officials with American Electric Power (AEP), the country’s largest electricity generator, gave notice on May 31 that they will build a coal-fired power plant in Texas or Arkansas. This will probably be a pulverized-coal plant, says David Hawkins, the director of the climate center for the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), an environmental group. Yet AEP engineers are well
into designing a 600-MW IGCC plant in Meigs County, Ohio, and the company has filed an application to construct another 600-MW IGCC unit in West Virginia. The announcements are part of a recent explosion in proposals for new coal-fired power plants not seen for 30 years, Klara says. To date, companies have proposed to build 140 new plants that would produce 85 GW of electricity by 2025, an increase of ∼50% over today’s capacity, he says. Only 22 of the plants are planned to be IGCC facilities. The proposals are in line with the forecast from the federal Energy Information Administration (EIA), which in February 2006 predicted that coal consumption will rise to 1.5 billion t, boosting CO2 emissions from coal >50% by 2030. EIA also predicts that total electricity sales will increase by 50%, from 3.567 trillion kW·h in 2004 to 5.341 trillion in 2030. However, whether all of the plants will be built is not absolutely certain, in part because the EIA forecast is based on the unlikely assumption that CO2 will remain unregulated for the next 25 years, says Ed Rubin, with Carnegie Mellon University. What is clear is that the choice of technology “is one of the biggest decisions that companies and the states that regulate them will be making, because a conventional coal plant will lock us into 50–60 years of high CO2 emissions in a world where we need to be cutting emissions,” NRDC’s Hawkins says. “Most utilities are having a hard time deciding between pulverized-coal and IGCC plants,” says Joule Bergerson of the University of Calgary (Canada). Although >100 small-scale IGCC plants are used in chemical manufacturing worldwide, only 2 commercial-sized electricity power plants exist in the U.S. As a result, there is greater uncertainty about getting the technology right, she says. However, an AEP white paper
News Briefs Green computers
For products such as wood, buildings, or organic food, a consumer can look for an item that is “green”—that is, produced with limited environmental impacts. The Green Electronics Council, based in Portland, Ore., has decided to apply a similar labeling system to computer goods, called EPEAT, or the Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool. The council has released an online database of computer products that are evaluated on the basis of a weighted scoring system. Criteria that garner points include eliminating plasticizers and designing goods that are easily upgraded. The computers that EPEAT rates will not bear any actual label; procurement managers will have a readily available and searchable online database for future purchases. To browse products, see www. epeat.net.
Biofuels poised to displace oil
World biofuel production topped 670,000 barrels/d last year, which equals a mere 1% of global transport fuel needs. The findings were released in a report by the Worldwatch Institute. Biofuel production has doubled over the past 5 years, and policies are accelerating government and corporate investment in more facilities. If trends continue, then biofuels could supply 37% of U.S. transport fuels within 25 years. Over the same time period, biofuels could replace 20–30% of the EU’s oil use. Although burning ethanol and biodiesel reduces local air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, these fuels do have their own environmental costs. Fuel crops grown on ecologically fragile lands, for instance, can increase soil erosion and deplete aquifers. For more information, see www.worldwatch. org/node/4078.
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Coal utilities gamble on carbon regulation
Environmentalt News on IGCC plants, released on May 5, 2005, states, “It is AEP’s opinion that taking this first step into the new era of electric generation using IGCC technology is both fiscally responsible and the right thing to do as a matter of public policy.” The paper calculates that if climate legislation is in place by 2010, an IGCC plant equipped with carbon-capture and -sequestration technologies will cost $9 million less than a pulverized-coal plant with carbon-capture and carbon-storage capability. Jay Apt, with Carnegie Mellon University, has run models that
show that IGCC plants with carbon capture and storage become very profitable when the price of CO2 hits $35/t. A study from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology claims that a flat CO2 charge of $23.27/t makes an IGCC plant more economical than a pulverized-coal plant, but if the charge grows by 4% over time, IGCC wins at the rate of $13.71/t, says Barbara Freese, a Minnesota consultant and author of the book Coal: A Human History. The long-term plans of nearly a dozen electric utilities and power companies, such as California’s
PG&E and PacifiCorp, assume CO2 costs ranging from $9/t in 2010 to $62/t in 2023, according to a report from Synapse Energy Economics. Prices in the EU’s market ranged from $14 to $30/t this year. Senior officials with Duke Energy, Calpine, Exelon, Entergy, and the FPL Group, 5 of the top 10 electricity generators in the U.S., all support CO2 regulation, Freese says. Carbon controls are on the horizon in California, and seven northeastern states are pushing for change, Hawkins says. —JANET PELLEY
Canada eyes limits on nonstick chemicals tended to prevent future problems. EC also proposed to ban the import of any other newly developed fluorotelomer polymers that can break down into long-chain perfluorinated carboxylic acids, which are persistent and appear to be accumulating in Arctic animals. jupiterimages
Environment Canada (EC) and Health Canada have proposed to control, limit, or ban widely used stain repellents that keep fast-food grease off clothes and nasty stains off carpets. The proposed regulations, released on June 17, would make permanent Canada’s temporary bans on four fluorotelomer polymers. Experts believe that this marks the first time a government has banned the importation or manufacture of a group of fluorotelomer polymers. Other governments, including the U.S. and the EU, are watching Canada closely. “This action gives the European Union inspiration in our work to handle the risks of these very hazardous chemicals, which are some of the most persistent chemicals known,” says Ethel Forsberg, director general of KemI, the Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate. An Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development workshop on these chemicals will be held in November in Stockholm. Officials with DuPont, the manufacturer of two of the four substances targeted in the ban, issued a statement saying that Canada’s action “is not warranted based on the available science.” But John Arseneau, head of risk assessment at EC, has noted that these actions are in-
Long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids are accumulating in Arctic wildlife.
At the same time, EC officials are conducting negotiations with industry representatives that are modeled on a January U.S. EPA agreement with the eight major manufacturers of fluorotelomer chemicals. The chemical makers consented to eliminate fluorotelo mer emissions from factories and off-gassing from products. EC’s goal is to reduce emissions from
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the >50 fluorotelomer chemicals that were already on the market before their potential effects were discovered. EC is basing its decision on recent research showing that volatile fluorotelomer alcohols are being blown by the winds to remote locations where atmospheric reactions, microbial action, or animal metabolism convert them into nonvolatile, longer-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids. Much of this work comes from the labs headed by University of Toronto chemist Scott Mabury, Ford Motor Co. atmospheric scientist Tim Wallington, and EC scientist Derek Muir. An alternative hypothesis involving an old ocean source has been proposed by Stockholm University chemist Ian Cousins and DuPont scientists, but thus far no studies support the hypothesis. An important unresolved question is whether fluorotelomer polymers can break down and release fluorotelomer alcohols. If this process occurs, then treated products already in use or discarded could represent a long-term source to the environment. EPA scientists say they are studying this issue. DuPont will spend $5 million over 3 years to investigate whether 9 of its perfluorinated chemicals biodegrade, as part of a record $16.5 million settlement with EPA. —REBECCA RENNER
News Briefs
tute of Technology (ETH). Once she begins work in January, Hering says that she will represent Eawag as an “ambassador” to the Swiss Office for the Environment and to the broader science and engineering community. She will “start out in an information-gathering stage, collaborating with the staff” about ideas and new research priorities. Her ideas include putting more emphasis on environmental engineering and building on a strong fundamental science base to promote applications of scientific discovery, she says. Unlike most U.S. institutions, Eawag gets most of its funding directly from the Swiss government and receives supplemental support from Swiss and European funding agencies, foundations, and industry. “There is nothing comparable to it in the U.S. or even in the world, except maybe the Max Planck Institutes in Germany,” Hering says. Although she will miss southern California and Caltech, the ETH and the Swiss Federal Council offered her “an amazing opportunity,” she adds. “It was certainly one that I couldn’t pass up.” —CATHERINE M. COONEY Courtesy of JANE T HERING
The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), a research, teaching, and consulting institute with international ties, has named Janet G. Hering as its new director beginning January 1, 2007. Hering, an ES&T associate editor, is a prominent environmental science and engineering professor and researcher at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). She also is executive director of the Keck Laboratories for Bioengineering, Environmental Science and Engineering, and Materials Science. Hering’s appointment marks the second time that she will live and work in Switzerland. From 1988 to 1991, she worked with Werner Stumm—then the Eawag director. Hering was a postdoctoral researcher studying the chemistry of the mineral–water interface. She enjoys being outdoors and especially likes hiking, a hobby that should fit in well with the Swiss lifestyle, she says. Eawag has a budget of 58 million Swiss francs and a staff of 300; it is affiliated with the 2 university campuses and 3 other research institutes of the Swiss Federal Insti-
Ozone healing delayed
The hole in the ozone layer that sits above Antarctica will not recover for >50 years, according to a new model that pushes back scientists’ recent prediction for recovery. The latest model is more accurate because it precisely accounts for atmospheric chlorine and bromine, according to research published in Geophysical Research Letters on June 30 (doi 10.1029/2005GL025232). These two gases were released in large amounts by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) until 1987, when the Montreal Protocol called for their phaseout. CFCs and other compounds that release chlorine and bromine remain buried in landfills and continue to be used in some parts of the world. Last December, another group of scientists calculated that Antarctic ozone would recover by ~2065.
A wiki of a different kind
The National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), a nonprofit research and education group, is seeking contributors and topic editors for an environmental wikipedia. Wikipedias are online encyclopedias that can be edited to increase accuracy and capture the updated news. The Encyclopedia of Earth will target an audience from high-school graduates up to Ph.D. holders and will provide comprehensive and timely web-based information. Subject matter will be written from the ground up, like most wikis, but topic editors, or established experts, will peer-review and approve each article before posting it on the site. Each article will be linked to research on NCSE’s Earth Portal, a free online forum of information contributed by scientists, academics, governments, and institutions. For more information, go to http://earthportal.net/about/ steward.
Eawag’s new director, Janet Hering. august 15, 2006 / Environmental Science & Technology n 4819
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Janet G. Hering to direct Swiss Eawag
Environmentalt News Keeping up with the Johnsons
STE VE RIT TER, C&EN
pharmaceutical companies. Other winners included Arkon Consultants and Nupro TechnoloThe maker of a variety of houseregulatory practices. gies, which came together to rehold cleaners and other consumer Although the Greenlist is tradevamp a printing process known products was one of five recipients marked, Scott Johnson, vice as flexographic printing. Chemiof this year’s Presidential Green president of SC Johnson’s Global Encal etching of plastic sheets creChemistry Challenge Awards. SC vironmental and Safety Actions diviates flexible surfaces used to print Johnson & Son, which sells the sion, emphasized that this was only boxes for shipping and packagdrain cleaner Drano, plastic Zipto protect its distribution. The coming. The team reduced the amount loc bags, and other of solvents used household goods, by small printwon for its tradeing companies marked Greenand found a way list process, in to recycle some which it rates all of the chemicals of its products acin a trademarked cording to the “cold reclaim” syschemical and entem. The academic vironmental imaward winner Gapacts of their raw len Suppes of the materials. University of MisSC Johnson’s souri–Columbia award-winning and his co-workers product is not a developed anothtangible product er kind of recyat all but a manucling, with a new facturing checkbiological catalytic SC Johnson & Son earned a Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award list that reinforces method to make for a manufacturing checklist that rates all of its products according to greengreen-chemistry propylene glycol. chemistry principles. principles. The They start out with process includes rating chemicals pany’s lawyers are now putting the glycerin, a sizable byproduct of on a scale of 0 to 3 on various critefinishing touches on the first agreebiodiesel production. ria, with 3 as “best”. ment with another company that For increasing efficiency and For example, a chemical incan use the process for free. Greencutting back on raw materials used, gredient for a product could drag list users must agree to make their two pharmaceutical companies redown the overall product rating if process transparent to outsiders. ceived awards. Merck bioengineered its only natural source is from an The list may take SC Johnson enzymes to speed up a process for endangered ecosystem, in which and the companies that adopt it creating the diabetes drug Januvia. case the company might choose a “above and beyond” regulations in Scientists at Codexis managed to synthetic version. The system also place in the U.S., according to Daperform a similar trick in creating weighs the cost of plastic bottles vid Long of SC Johnson, who prenew biocatalytic enzymes in their and other packaging. sented the Greenlist methodology lab by a process they call directed The Greenlist process dictates at the Green Chemistry & Engievolution. Using recombinant DNA that some substances be banned neering conference in Washington, and microbiological breeding, they outright from SC Johnson’s formuD.C., in June. created enzymes to speed up the lations. If such “0-listed” chemicals The company follows aquatic low-temperature production of a turn out to be necessary, a comtoxicity determinations made by molecule used in the cholesterol pany review panel must approve the Organisation for Economic Codrug Lipitor. their use. operation and Development 301 The “cradle-to-grave” approach The company’s chemists must rule. The list also directs SC John“is where everybody’s going,” parconsider a chemical’s Greenlist ratson to avoid endocrine disrupters, ticularly the pharmaceutical ining before incorporating it into a which are regulated in the EU but dustry, said R. P. “Skip” Volante of product’s recipe, and their success not in the U.S. Merck in his plenary presentation in implementing the list is now SC Johnson’s winning process at the conference. Sustainability part of their performance evaluais a departure from those of the has to be related to a “triple bottions. The decisions made are unrest of this year’s winners, which tom line,” Volante said: economic, der regular review with regard to are university researchers as well environmental, and societal. both the scientific literature and as large and small chemical and —NAOMI LUBICK 4820 n Environmental Science & Technology / august 15, 2006
