BOOKS
High-Pressure Diamond Synthesis Reviewed by John C. Angus
D
iamond synthesis is one of the oldest continuing enterprises in chemistry. Decades of effort have been driven by the allure of diamond as a gemstone and, more recently, by diamond's extreme properties that make it useful in industrial applications. Part of this history—the intertwined story of diamond synthesis and high-pressure research—is told in 'The New Alchemists: Breaking Through the Barriers of High Pressure." Despite some flaws, the book gives a highly entertaining and insightful look into real problems of high-level research efforts. The book's cast of characters includes brilliant loners like physicist Percy W. Bridgman, who essentially invented high-pressure science by himself, as well as a clutch of frauds, self-deluded fools, and the large corporate research teams that eventually succeeded in making synthetic diamond a commercial reality. Author Robert M. Hazen, a research scientist at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C., raises, by implication, larger issues of "big" versus "little" science and how creative individuals can flourish in a bureaucratic environment. In large corporate and academic organizations, for example, assigning priority for scientific discovery can be difficult. Bridgman worked most of the time with a single helper, so credit for his discoveries was undivided and unchallenged. Tracy Hall, on the other hand, whose individual contributions were crucial to the success of General Electric's diamond program, was a member of a large research group. Hall believed he was the first to grow diamond at GE (in 1954), and hence the first person ever to do so. Others in the GE team believed that diamond had been synthesized there somewhat earlier and, in any event, that their diamond program was a group effort and credit should be shared. This issue has never been satisfactorily resolved, and Hall's unhappy departure from GE is one of the sadder episodes in the diamond story.
are still relevant. Eversole appears to have been the first to synthesize new diamond, albeit at very low rates on preexisting diamond seed crystals. The Swedish team was the first to synthesize diamond at high pressure, but, inexplicably, they neglected to publish their results until years later. The GE researchers not only made diamond, they also developed synthetic diamond into a major commercial product, truly one of the great triumphs of industrial research. All of the high-pressure efforts relied on the thermodynamic analyses of Ovsei I. Liepunski in the Soviet Union and Robert Berman and Francis E. Simon in the U.K., who estimated the pressure-temperature range of diamond from the experimental data of Tracing the many strands of stability Frederick D. Rossini and Ralph S. Jessup research that contributed to at what was then the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). As this convoluted diamond synthesis gives history shows, assigning so-called scipriority in real situations is insight into real problems entific much more complex than comparing of much high-level research dates of published papers. The conflict of individuals with each other and their institutions is a constant "The New Alchemists: Breaking thread throughout the book. Hazen deThrough the Barriers of High Pres- scribes one particularly egregious case, sure/' by Robert M. Hazen, Times that of Soviet scientist Sergei Stishov. In Books, 201 East 50th St., New York, 1960, a young Stishov discovered the N.Y. 10022,1994, 286 pages, $23 high-pressure form of quartz, a finding of great importance in geology. When the new phase was named stishovite by workers in the West, Stishov got in Last year, members of the original trouble with the leadership at the InstiGE team confirmed that diamond from tute of High Pressure Physics, where their first "successful" run was, in fact, he worked. He dropped out of sight for a fragment of natural diamond. Thus, many years. Now, after the political Hall's accomplishment really was the upheavals in Russia, Stishov heads the first reproducible, high-pressure syn- same institute. Another tale of personal thesis of diamond at GE. However, it conflict and the battle for recognition is now appears that Baltzar von Platen, the ongoing controversy in the U.S. Halvard Liander, and Eric Lundblad at and the former Soviet Union about the ASEA (Allmanna Svenska Elektriska metallization of hydrogen at extreme Aktiebolaget) in Sweden preceded Hall pressures. in achieving high-pressure synthesis of Major advances in technology and diamond. Their feat, in turn, came a science require both individuals with few weeks after William G. Eversole at vision and competently run, well-fundUnion Carbide's Linde Division syn- ed support groups. Today's massive thesized diamond at low pressure by corporate disinvestment in research in chemical vapor deposition in late 1952. the U.S. is eroding support for projects All of these groups made major con- like GE's diamond effort. Replacing tributions to diamond synthesis that this investment with direct federal gov-
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BOOKS ernment support of technology development presents challenges. Will it really be possible for the government to make rational choices about which technologies to support? It is hard to imagine the National Institute of Standards & Technology (formerly NBS) investing in anything as esoteric as diamond synthesis appeared to be in 1950. In a democracy, political considerations will certainly play a role in these decisions, as is already happening in "big science" projects. The Superconducting Super Collider failed to retain its federal support because its leaders were unable to convey their grand vision to the public and to Congress. The U.S. space station is failing also—perhaps for the same reason, or possibly because there is, in fact, little vision behind National Aeronautics & Space Administration press releases. Current enthusiasm for the idea that the federal government should support industrial research must be tempered by a pragmatic assessment of these realities. Hazen's look at the history of diamond synthesis provides other insights into the complex relationship between science and technology. Practical advances in the technology of highstrength materials were needed to develop diamond anvil high-pressure cells, which, in turn, led to other major scientific discoveries. This is yet another example where advances in technology flow from applied research to basic research and then to the marketplace. Sometimes basic science leads technology, sometimes it lags behind. The book is not without flaws. The author never decides whether he is writing about diamond synthesis or about high-pressure research. A truly comprehensive history of diamond synthesis remains to be written. There is surprisingly little attempt to describe the physical chemical basis for the various approaches to diamond synthesis. For example, the relationship of the structures and relative densities of diamond and graphite to the phase chemistry of carbon is discussed only in a rudimentary way. Leipunski, Berman, and Simon, who worked out the carbon phase diagram, aren't mentioned. A more complete scientific explanation would have helped to explain the differences between static high-pressure and shock-wave syntheses as well as advances in chemical vapor deposition of diamond. Also, a quantitative com38
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parison of the pressures reached in the laboratory versus those believed to exist in geological and astronomical processes would have been helpful. There is a certain "gee-whiz," uncritical quality to some parts of the book, especially those outside the author's direct field of expertise, which is high-pressure science. The chapter on fullerenes is particularly uncritical and out of character with the rest of the narrative. The publisher obviously saved money by not redrawing some of the figures. While it is sometimes of great interest to see original drawings for their historical content, they often are not suitable for
explaining experimental procedures to nonexperts. The descriptions of the various types of high-pressure cells would have been greatly improved by a set of self-consistent drawings with more annotations. Despite these criticisms, the book is well worth reading. It gives insight, not only into a fascinating field of research that is still unfolding, but also into the human side of high-level research. John C. Angus, a professor of chemical engineering at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, has studied the chemical vapor deposition of diamond for 30 years. •
Paperbacks
Vacuum Technology and Space Simulation. David H. Hokeboer, et al. 339 pages. American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St. 10017. 1993. $35.
Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis. William D. Ehmann, Diane E. Vance, xviii + 531 pages. John Wiley & Sons, 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. 1993. $49.95. Random Walks in Biology. Howard C. Berg, vii + 152 pages. Princeton University Press, 41 William St., Princeton, N.J. 08540. 1993. $12.95, £10.95. Science and Technology Advice to the President, Congress, and Judiciary. William T. Golden, editor, xxiii + 529 pages. AAAS Press, 1333 H St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. 1993. $29.95. Some Naturally Occurring Substances: Food Items and Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins. International Agency for Research on Cancer. 599 pages. WHO Publications Center USA, 49 Sheridan Ave., Albany, N.Y. 12210. 1993. $85.50.
Water. Paul Caro. 155 pages. McGrawHill, 1221 Ave. of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. 1993. $10.95.
Hardbacks Physical Methods of Chemistry. 2nd Ed. Bryant W. Rossiter, Roger C. Baetzold, editors, xiii + 391 pages. John Wiley & Sons, 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. 1993. $195. Physical Properties of Polymers. 2nd Ed. James E. Mark, et al. xi + 409 pages. American Chemical Society, 1155— 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. 1993. $44.95 hardback, $34.95 paperback.
Physics, Chemistry and Technology of Solid State Gas Sensor Devices. Andreas Mandelis, Constantinos ChristSustainable Environmental Economics ofides. xxiii + 323 pages. John Wiley & and Management. R. Kerry Turner, edSons, 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. itor. 389 pages. John Wiley & Sons, 605 10016. 1993. $59.95. Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. 1993. $29.95. Polymeric Gas Separation Membranes. R. E. Kesting, A. K. Fritzsche. xi + 416 pagTeaching General Chemistry: A Materies. John Wiley & Sons, 605 Third Ave., als Science Companion. Arthur B. ElNew York, N.Y. 10016. 1993. $69.95. lis, et al. xxvii + 554 pages. American Chemical Society, 1155—16th St., N.W., Polymers for Microelectronics: Resists and Dielectrics. ACS Symposium SeWashington, D.C. 20036. 1993. $29.95. ries 537. Larry F. Thompson, C. Grant Transition Metals in the Synthesis of Willson, Seiichi Tagawa, editors. AmeriComplex Organic Molecules. Louis S. can Chemical Society, 1155—16th St., Hegedus. x + 358 pages. University SciN.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. 1994. ence Books, 20 Edgehill Rd., Mill Val$119.95. ley, Calif. 94941. 1993. $38. Polymers of Biological and Biomedical Significance. ACS Symposium Series Vacuum Science and Technology: Pio540. Shalaby W. Shalaby, et al., editors, neers of the 20th Century. Paul A. xii + 337 pages. American Chemical SoRedhead, editor, xi + 229 pages. Amerciety, 1155—16th St., N.W., Washingican Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th ton, D.C. 20036. 1994. $89.95. • St., New York, N.Y. 10017. 1993. $35.
