John H. Wotiz
Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Illinois 62901
Higher Education and Research in Chemistry in the USSR
A n understanding of the higher education in the USSR requires a knowledge of some features of the primary and secondary education (1). Such education in the Soviet Union starts at age seven and ends ten years later. As a matter of policy the Soviet educators do not believe in science survey or general science courses. Consequently, all students during the ten years complete mathematics through solid geometry and trigonometry, physics up to topics in atomic physics and chemistry that includes some organic. During the four years, the conventional topics of introductory chemistry are presented in 347 instructional hours. About 10% of the time is devoted to laboratory work. However, in some schools teachers do not conduct any laboratory work at all (2). From self-critical Russian publications one learns that many chemistry courses are also taught in a number of schools on R Im theon.tienl level. 'The nse of rduratiou:~l1ilm.s in tor:~llyinntlcqunre. \lost of the shorrcominxs ~ r ~ r l u c mainly to the poor training of some teachers (3). St.udents frequently memorize considerable portions of the text,booB material but are unable to use it intelligently - .
(44).
In spite of all the apparent shortcomings and faults, the Russian secondary schools seem t o prepare the st,udents relatively well for life and for higher education The author spent four months in 1969 in the Soviet Union in an exchange program between the US and t,heUSSR Academies of Sciences. Besides Moscow and Leningrad, he visiied and lectured in Universities and Institutes of t,he Soviet Academy of Sciences in Akndemgorodog (Siberia), Irkutsk (Siberia), Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Thilisi (Georgia), and Yerevan (Armenia). His lectures were in the field of his professional specialties, acetylene and allene chemistry, and higher edocation in chemistry in the USA. In exchange he asked and received goad response t,o qmstions dealing with t,he Soviet acetylene c h e m i a t , ~ and with higher education in chemistry. This was done during numerous on-sit,e visitations and int,erviews. Questions were forrnnlnted over a wide area. Many times the style and approach of a visiting member of a chemistry department accrediting team in the USA was t,aken. The responses were generally comprehensive and courteous. The present paper deals with a description as well as with some personal ev.zluations of the Russian education in chemistly, with itn emphasis on organic chemistry because of the author's personal involvement in this field. It. would be unfair and unwise t o assume that, one-man observations and studies aver a period of four months can oover adequbtely t,he entire field of t,he sciences or oven chemist,ry. However, much of the information described here is generally applicable. This became evident when the author had ample chance t o compare and discuss his findings with some Americsns, foreign ehemist,~,and ot,her scient~ists and engineers who were visiting t,he Soviet Union during t,he same time. For s. preliminary report on the same suhject see "Soviet US Chemistry Educations Iliffer," in Chcm. and Eng. N m s , 31 (Apr. 13, 1970). Published statistical information was also consulted and is presented in t,his paper for specific illustrations.
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Journol of Chemicol
Education
especially in the sciences and mathematics. The intensity of the work and the students' motivation to succeed is a big factor. Admission to higher educat,ion is a crucial, life-long decision, and it is made while the student is still in the secondary school. Admission to Higher Education
Entrance to higher education in the USSR is supposed to he open to anyone who wants it. At the same time schools should be provided a very high quality student body, properly academically prepared and motivated (5). I n many instances they seem to be contradictory goals. However, to accomplish this, detailed and complicated admission requirements exist. They are meant to be uniform t,hroughout the country, but individual schools and departments set their own requirements. I n general an entering student must know what field of study he will pursue. Every effort is made t o prevent a casual choice. Students who, after finishing secondary schooling, work in their own field for two years are given some preference. However, outstanding student,^ especially in mathemat,ics, sciences, and engineering as a rule do not interrupt their studies. Military service is credit,ed for admission purposes. The entrance to higher education is limited and there are about three applicants for every opening across the country. Competition is highest for admission into the better schools, and in chemistry at Moscow University the ratio is seven t,o one. Just likein theunited States, most Soviet Universities and Technological Institutes will make every effort to get the cream of the best qualified entering students. The difficulty of the entrance examinations is greater in the "elite" institutions such as Universities in illoscow, Leningrad, and Novosibirsk and the Technological Inst,itutes in Leningrad and Moscow (Lomonosov and Mendeleev). Generally, the provincial and the Republic institutions do not give such demanding entrance examinations and consequently the student body is not as select and bright. The analysis of the entrance examinations in chemistry administered by Moscow State University revealed an interesting picture of the Russian secondary school, not unlike the one in our country (4). Students from o~t~lying regions of the USSR had less knowledge than those from large cit'ies. Moscow University Chemistry Depahment (faculty) found that mathematics grades are the best indicat.ionof how the students will do in chemistry. Many of the elite institutions set aside a certain quota for students from some Republics where the secondary schooling is of lower quality. Such students, especially from the Asiatic Republics, receive up to one year of remedial inst,ruct,ionin the sciences and in the Russian language. Thus Rloscow University Chemistry De-
partment admits 350 students yearly of which 50 are in the special quota. About 83y0 of the entering students finish the five-and-a-half-year-long curriculum. The most elaborate system of admission exists in the Novosibirsk State University (actually located in the Academy City-Akademgorodod). As the fourth University in Siberia it was founded in 1959 to provide "high" quality instruction for Siberian inhabitants. This university concentrates its instruction to m a t h e matics and the sciences and conducts contests for admission throughout the Asian part of Russia. From the original 10-12,000 applicants about 200 to 300 are selected for admission to the University. I n general, the Soviet Educators in higher educational institutions receive and work with a better motivated and selected student than their American counterparts. However, the rigid requirements and screenings have an already built-in weakness due to over-specialization. They do not give a "late blooming" student a good chance to get a higher education other than evening classes which are frequented by many adults. The Undergraduate University Curriculum
The higher education in the Soviet Union is entirely oriented to professional training and specialization. There are no programs comparable to, or equivalent to our liberal arts and sciences. At the present time there are 18 major areas (exclusive of military sciences) with 48 specialities and with 841 subdivisions where a graduate can receive a Diploma certificate (not a degree) stating the specialty in which he was trained, and the occupationtional title he has earned. I n theory this indicates the occupation in which he should be employed (6). The Chemical Scienceswhich are one of the major areas have 14 subdivisions for specialization. The undergraduate instructions range from 5 to 6 years depending on the specialities (majors). The science curriculas comprise 4-5000 instructional hours (lectures, laboratories, and seminars) and include 2530 subjects (7). Besides, students have 14-18 weeks for preparation and study for the state examinations. At Moscow University the Winter semester includes 18 weeks of instruction, 25 days for examinations, and two weeks of vacations. However, the Spring semester is only 16 weeks long and includes 25 days for examinations and two month vacations. Numerous elective courses in and out of the student's specialty may he taken in addition. Thus the Soviet student spends about twice the time in school as the American student and works under considerable pressure. He is not too well-educated because his system of education does not provide sufficient time in the curriculum for courses outside the field of specialization. A typical undergraduate univemity chemistry curriculum contains about 4525 instructional hours. Course subjects, which are found in every Soviet science curriculum, are physical education (ahout 120 hr), foreign language (270 hr), and social sciences (510 hr) (8). The latter category includes courses in Socialistic Economy, n4amist History and Philosophy, which seem to create the greatest amount of dissatisfaction among students and faculty because they are excessively long and dull. The physical education program is essentially paramilitary. A wide variety of foreign languages are offered, hut 80% of the students select Eng-
lish. Students are able to converse in the foreign language at the end of the program. Languages are not always limited to the ones with considerable technical literature. Students are a t times "urged" or compelled to study "minor" European, African, and Asian languages since they may be later on assigned t,o participate in some foreign countries as teachers and/or technicians in government-sponsored development and assistance programs. The required chemistry courses (about 2225 hr) are in the conventional areas in chemistry. Instruction is offered by the lecture and laboratory methods. The ratio of the two seems to be about equivalent to the one in the United States. However, analytical (especially classical) chemistry seems to have retained a high time allocation. This may reflect the general lack of instrumentation in Russian laboratories. On the other hand, the excessive instruction in the methods of obsolete analyses may be responsible for the small demand for more and better instrumentation. Colloid chemistry which was once a common course in an undergraduate curriculum in our country is still a required course in Russia. The teaching of physical chemistry before organic seems to be possible because the students come to the University better prepared in mathematics than Americans. The individual organic and physical chemistry courses are frequently taught by two different professors. One lectures on theory, and another on practice and procedure. The laboratory is under the supervision of a permanent laboratory instruction staff of Docents, Doctors of Science, or Assistants. The only required science courses outside of chemistry are mathematics (394 hr) and physics (522 hr). There are 40 elective and/or optional courses which account for about 484 hr (8). Not all courses are offered simultaneously nor in every academic year. The seminar method of instruction is frequently used when the enrollment is low. All undergraduates perform a Diploma work (undergraduate research) under the general supervision of a Professor or Doctor of Science. Students may select an area of specialization and a research director. However, a direct assignment is employed at times when a certain area (e.g., polymer chemistry) is new or needs more trained manpower. Frequently a faculty member will spot an outstanding student in his earlier courses and will try to influence the student to do research under his direction. Thus recruiting of quest.ionable ethics is also known and practiced in the USSR. Students find it difficult to resist such pressures since they eventually will need a very strong recommendation from a faculty member to get permission to do graduate work. After students receive their professional Diploma certificate in Chemistry they have spent only fifteen and one-half years in school yet their training is about equivalent to a Master's Degree in the United States which usually requires 18 years for completion. Whereas Soviet University students are more intensively trained in a specialty, Americans will be better educated over a wider area. At this stage, the superiority (or the deficiency) of one educational system over the other cannot he made without considering their overall educational goals. Volume 48, Number 1 , January 1971
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The Engineering Curriculum
Chemical engineering is taught in Institutes of Technology. The Institntes may be independent and selfadministrating, such as t,he Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technology and the Mendeleev Institute of Technology, both in Moscow. Or they may be a part of a group of t~echnologicalschools, such as the Leuingrad Technological Institute. Schools generally have narrow curricula which prepares the students for a speciaky. I n many respects the chemical technology curriculum resembles the University program in chemistry, especially in the first three years. It takes five and onehalf years to complete t,he work leading to the Diploma of Engineer of Chemical Technology. There are about 4500 instructional hours of which 12y0 is devoted to nonchemical or technological subjects, socio-economics, Marxist philosophy, foreign languages, and physical education. Physics and mathematics take 15% of the time, chemistry 25%, chemical engineering lo%, and mechanical engineering 19y0. Specialized courses and subjects occupy the remaining 19% ((8. Foreign languages are studied for only two years. Thermodynamics is introduced for the first time in the second year in a physics course and organic in the second year. The most &artling deviation from American chemical engineering instruction is the general absence of engineering laboratories and pilot-plant provisions. I n most technological institutes the fourth-year students are assigned for 4-6 mnn training at an operating chemical plant. There they start as apprentices and work under the supervision of plant employees, not all of whom are engineers with appropriate academic qualifications. Members of the "Chair" (division) of Technology of the home Technological Institute visit the plants three times during this period for consultation and supervision. While at the plant students learn, essentially for the first time, the use of heavy tools and actually see for t,he first time conventional chemical engineering hardware. Students also are supposed to work out technological projects related to the plant. I n practice such projects exist only on paper since few plant managers or engineers would permit tampering with an operating process and production by an "inquisit,ive" student in the plant. The fulfilling of a production quota does not lend itself to experimentation. Consequently, the Soviet chemical engineers do not have pilot-plant experience in process design and operation. This is, and will be, a major deterrent to industrial development in Russia today and for years to come. The number of Soviet engineers may be increming but their productivit,y per man is distinctly lower than in the United States, except in areas of high priority such as the military, nuclear, or space (9). Graduale Work and Degrees
Diploma chemists and engineers who are also ot,herwise properly qualified may start working (aspirantura) toward the degree of Candidate of Science (Kandidat Nauk). During this period students are referred to as aspirants. The next higher degree is Doctor of Science 62
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Journal of Chemicol Education
(Doktor Nauk). I n all of Russia in 1965 there were 7632 chemists with the Candidate degree. This corresponded to 5.7% of the total number of individuals in all fields with this degree. Similarly, there were only 843 chemists with the degree of Doctor of Science (5.7y0 of total number) (10). The 1964 annual increment of Candidate Chemists was 710 and there were 29 new Doctors. This represented 6.7 and 2.8% of increment in the respective categories (11). Some of the Russian advanced degrees are earned, but many are awarded to recognize certain accomplishments in research or teaching. Admission to the aspirantura program is limited. One must have very good recommendations from his past teachers. Membership in the Isusually do not find an opportunity to write their thesis during the first three years. After the completion of t.he apirantura students have to present, and publicly defend a thesis based on t,heir original research. This examination is taken before a commission of some twenty highly academically qualified senior members of Universities and Research Institutes. The examination takes 2 hr (very closely adhered to). student,^ come prepared with slides, charts, and graphs. The examining committee also appoints internal and ext,ernal referees, proponents, and opponent,s of the presented dissertation. A secret vote is t,aken. Such public examinations are usually formalities since very few student,^ fail once they reach this stage. However, a disproportional t,ime of prestigious and otherwise busy members of t,he staff is taken up by such ceremonial activities.
If a dissertation is defended on a topic not consistent with the basic field of specialization which the student acquired with his diploma work, an additional Candidate examination must he taken on the general scientific subject in his field of specialization (6). I t is ohvious that such provisions stifle broad education and interdisciplinary programs. The degree of Doctor of Science is awarded to individuals who hold the degree of Candidate of Science, or the academic title of Professor, and who have publicly defended a dissertation, published extensively, or are authors of inventions or textbooks. However, this degree may also be honorary and is awarded without defense of a dissertation to individuals famous for their outstanding scientific work, discoveries, or inventions (6). Thus, there are many Soviet Doctors that do not hold the lower degree of Candidate. Betaween1938 and 1946 only 14% of the new Doctors were holders of the Candidate degree. During 193436, 81.5% of all Doctor degrees were awarded without defense of a dissertation, and this pract.ice is st,ill continued (18). The earned Doctor degree is supposed to be based on research work containing a theoretical utilization and the solution of a "major" scientific problem representing a considerable contribution to science and to practical work (6). It should have a "serious" impact. The dissertation summarizes the previous publications (40-50) in a systematic manner within a single topic, and it is not desirable to present a mixture of topics. The papers may be the published efforts of a group of scientific workers under the supervision of the man earning the degree. Since t,he publication of so many papers requires a long time, the new Doctors are frequently older persons. Between 1947 and 1955, 14.8y0 of all new Doctors were under 39 years of age; 48.2% were 40-49 years old; 29.2% were in their fifties; and 7.8% were over sixty years old (IS). Furt.hermore, the dissertations often contain outdated or obsolete work. The laboratory investigators become so publication conscious that they are publishing incomplete data, and too many "small" papers which would make a greater impact if combined into fewer, but major contributions. Thus, the philosophy of "publish or perish" is much more in evidence in the Soviet Union than in America. I n Russia it is actually legislated by the stringent degree requirements. Soviet graduate work is done not only in regular Higher Educational Establishments (e.g., Universities), but also at Research Institutes of the Academies of Sciences and its branches, and a t select,ed Institutes and Laboratories under the control and jurisdict,ionof Ministries and Industry. I n 1960 there were 2327 (100%) major research and educational establishments in all fields of activity. However, only 1093 (47%) were permitted to have an aspirantura program of which 398 were Higher Ed~cat~ional Establishments, 342 belonged to Academy of Sciences (All-Soviet and Republic), and 353 were in the Ministry and Industry category. However, the supervision of the aspirantura training does not automatically permit establishments to accept theses. Only 541 (23y0) were permitted to accept Candidate dissertat,ions and 283 (12%) accepted Doctor theses (14). The Universities and Technological Institutes account for about two-thirds of all degrees awarded, the Academies 2070, and Minist,ry and Industry establish-
ments the remainder (15). About 5% of all of the above figures apply specifically to chemistry establishments and degrees. The higher degree is actually awarded by t,he allpowerful Supreme Attestation Commission. It is made up of t,he most famous and prestigious men from the entire Soviet Union. This Commission selects and empowers (accredits) all schools and establishments to engage in research and accept dissertations on the basis of their facilities and qualified staff. The Commission reviews all the recommendations for Candidate degree, and decides itself who is to get the Doctor degree. It also makes the appointments to all ranks of Professor. The title of Professor has two meanings in t,he Soviet system. I n the Academy Institutes it is an honor bestowed upon a senior research member who is a Chief of Laboratory (group or section leader). The Scient,ific Council (Soviet,) of his Academy Institut,e makes the recommendation for the action of the At,testation Commission. A lifelong diploma is awarded. I n Higher Educational establishment,^, t,he title Professor designates the highest academic st,aff position. The other ranks are Associate Professor (Docent)) and Assistant Professor (Assi~t~ant).Just like in t,he Candidate and Doctor degree awards, t.he tit,le of Docent, and Professor is awarded rather late in life, at an age of about 40 and 50 years, respectively. Approximately one-half of t,hose who received Doctor degrees, or appointments to Docent or Professor were members of the Communist part,y at the time the award was made (16). It was suggested that the Candidate degree is more than an American MS and less than t,he PhD degree (17). The Russians believe that the Candidate degree is equivalent to our PhD. I n chemist,ry, organic in ~articular,only the research and theses would be equal, and t,he foreign language requirement would be superior. Aspirants are deficient because of t,he absence of minor field requirements and within their speciaky they lack formal courses and examinat,ions .of intermediate and advanced nature. Whereas the Russian prof$ssional Diploma is a higher degree than t,he American BS and perhaps closer to the MS, the aspirantura does not add much to the st,udentsl formal education. n'Iost,ly it gives him research experience. The earned Doctor degree is not a degree in t,heAmerican sense, but a sign of recognition which could be compared to our post-doctorat,e experience. Too many Russians remain in one place to work and study under the same man in one field. This creates inbreeding and an educational system which lacks imaginat,ion and produces research contributions not up to the level of effort exerted and manpower used. The Academy of Sciences
An appraisal of the Russian educational system requires a good understanding of the role and unique position of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Federal) and its Republics (States, American analogy terms). It has functions, responsibilities, and budgets quite different from the National Academy of Sciences of the USA and its States, and most other Western Countries. By 1965 all the Soviet Academies had 958 scientific establishments and 74,000 scientists under their superVolume 48, Number I , Januory 1971
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vision (9). The Academy of the USSR is active not only in theoretical and applied research, but also research analysis and planning for the entire Soviet Union. It is interesting to note that the research in the Academy is often more of a fundamental nature than in Higher Educational Establishments (e.g., Universities) which frequently have the responsibility to investigate applied research and development. The definition of science in Russia is rather broad and presently there are fifteen divisions in which the Academy is active including History; Philosophy and Law; Economics; and Literature and Language (18). The power of the Academy rests with the members of its General Assembly and its Presidium (central executive body). Full and Corresponding (Associate, American counterpart term) members constitute the General Assembly, and only Full members can vote, elect their future colleagues, and be elected to the Presidium. I n 1966 there were 176 Academicians (Full members) and 360 Corresponding members in the USSR Academy (19). To become a Academician is the highest honor for a Soviet Scholar. It carries with it many privileges and prerogatives, and also substantial financial renumeration, 500 rubles a month extra for Academicians and 300 rubles for Corresponding members, all of which have a base pay of about 300 rubles a month. All scientific personnel may also earn up to 50% of their base pay for consulting or teaching. This explains in part the motivation of many Soviet scientists in their great drive to publish and gain recognition. There are fourteen Republic Academies which represent the largest section in the Academy System. I n 1966 they had 986 Academicians and Corresponding members in 356 scientific establishments which employed about 30,000 scientists (20). The internal organization of each Republic Academy is similar to the USSR Academy, however the areas of research are not as numerous. They usually have divisions in the basic sciences (e.g., chemistry) and in areas of particular interest or importance to the local and regional economy and culture. The Republic Academies are supervised, if not controlled, by the Presidium of the USSR Academy. Membership in a Republic Academy is also an honor which carries privileges. The monthly salary bonus for a Full member is 300 rubles and 100 rubles for Corresponding members. The USSR Academy through its Presidium controls and operates the Siberian Division (or Branch) which in many organizational aspects resembles a Republican Academy. However, the President of the Siberian Division is automatically a Vice President, of the USSR Academy (21). Its members are Full and Corresponding members of the USSR Academy. It was established in 1957 in an effort to develop the Siberian territory, and to disperse major research and production centers and establishments. Bonuses and special inducements are offered to scientists to come, work, and stay in Siberia. Individuals may keep their Western housing (e.g., in 1VIoscow) for five years while working in Siberia. Knowing that they can return to the West and have a place to live makes the scientists less reluctant to taste the work in Siberia. Thus a family may have two government assigned apartments, one of which they can sublease, or let stand empty. This seems 64 / Journal o f Chemical Education
strange especially if one considers the great housing shortage which is quite visible throughout the Soviet Union. The Siberian Division has two headquarters. The Western Research Center in Alcademgorodog (Academy City) is located about 15 miles outside of Novosibirsk which is the largest Siberian city. Akademgorodog was founded in 1957 and started operation in 1960. Today it has about 50,000 inhabitants. It is a completely self-sustaining city which combines research Institutes, with higher education (Novosibirslc State University founded in 1959), and with residential, shopping, and recreational facilities. The Novosibirsk Center employs some 16 Academicians, 28 Corresponding memhers, 95 Doctors, and 950 Candidates of Science (82). This is about two-thirds of all the personnel and scientists, and all of the Academicians and most of the Corresponding members, in the Siberian Division, and is indicative of great importance and prestige of the Akademgorodog establishments. The East Siberian Research Center is located in Irkutsk. An Academy City-like development was started there in 1958. However, in the prestige and power struggle it lost out to the Novosibirsk Center. Besides research Institutes the Academy establishments include specialized laboratories, observatories, experimental stations, libraries, and museums. The Academies, USSR and Republic, publish numerous books and journals containing accounts of original work or review articles. The Academy is also responsible for the translation of foreign journals and books, and their prompt distribution throughout the USSR either in the original language, or in translation. The Academy Institutes are headed by a director elected to four year terms by the Academy General Assembly and confirmed by the Presidium. Efforts are made to select Academicians or at least Corresponding members. However, there are not sufficient individuals in these categories and Institutes are sometimes headed by less academically qualified men. The director selects from the academic ranks, his own staff of co-directors, and a secretary. Each must be approved by the Presidium. He is also assisted by the Scientific Council (Soviet) of the Institute. Suprisingly, the Council is not elected but nominated by the director and appointed by the Presidium. I t is composed of the Institute's scientists and representatives of the Communist party and the Trade Union Organizations. Although the Council has consultative functions, in certain major and select Institutes it may also give examinations and make recommendation for the awarding of the degree Candidate and Doctor of Science. Funds for the operation of an Institute come from several sources. The bulk comes from the Academy Presidium and is divided into major categories, e.g., salary, purchase of equipment and chemicals, and maintenance. Directors may make switches from one category to another, except into salary. The director of an Institute may determine the salaries and wages of individuals only within the limit of allocations. The salary is determined according to grades (e.g., Junior or Senior researcher), academic degree, length of service, and the category of the Institute. I n 1966 the monthly wage of a senior research
worker in the highest ranking Institute (category one, major Institute of the USSR Academy) was reported to be 300 rubles a month. I n 1965 the average monthly wage in science and scientific services was only about 115 rubles, which was higher by 20 rubles than the average wage of all workers and employees in the USSR economy (25). Another source of income of an Academy Institute is for the work or services that it may perform for industry, ministry, or even another Academy Institute. That may be in the form of laboratory research, theoretical or feasibility studies, or quite frequently the sale of chemicals and/or major instruments prepared or constructed in the Institute. Many Institutes have oversized and overstaffed (by Western standards) shops (mechanical, electrical, and glassblowing) and pilot plants attached to it. This is necessary because many chemicals and scientific instruments which are commonly commercially available in the West have to be custom and handmade in Russia. An overcapacity in such auxiliary facilities is sometimes deliberate and thus the Institutes can (must) sell their chemicals or handmade instruments. Usually the Institutes have some manufacturing specialties. For example, the Zelinski Institute of Organic Chemistry in Moscow manufactures nmr's (about six a year) and vpc's, the Organic Chemistry Institute in Akademgorodod makes esr's, and the Institute of Fine Organic Chemistry in Yerevan (Armenia) synthesizes heterocyclic compounds of pharmacological use that are also sold outside the USSR. In the last case the income from such sales equalled the Institute's allocation from the Academy Presidium. Such income cannot he spent on salaries and the directors may buy scientific instruments, or in the Yerevan case, the director was building an apartment house for 71 of his younger chemists. Frequently the manufactured instmments are unusually and unnecessarily bulky, and of poor quality. This is partly due to the fact that the construction engineers and mechanics have to use parts and components used and available in general industry. In the last few years Institute members have become eager to get licenses and patents based on their work. The investigators receive bonuses, and the royalties are divided between the government and the Institute. If foreign currency is involved, the money comes directly to the Institute and can be spent for purchase of foreign instruments. One of the most frustrating functions of the director (or co-director) of an Institute is the acquisition of fine chemicals for research. Chemists and Chiefs of Laboratories submit their request for the entire year to the director who in turn submits an order to the Central Bureau of Supply of the Academy of Sciences, which in due time notifies the Institute which requests can, or cannot, be honored. Difficulties are encountered especially with the purchase of chemicals and instruments which need Western currency. However, even the acquisition of Russian manufactured chemicals presents problems, because there are few catalogs available, and the few existing ones are not indicative of what is actually obtainable through the Central Bureau. The chemicals need retesting and frequently repurification. Because of the erratic supply and delivery,
individual laboratory chemists order more than needed and hoard supplies. Although inventory counts have to be taken every three months of the items not yet dispensed, nobody in the Institute has a good idea of what is available since most chemicals and glassware are privately stashed away or hidden. Enterprising contacts between individual chemists seem to bringbest results. The overall research work of an Institute primarily reflects the interest in a narticular field of science of the government, and secondarily, of the Academy. However, the actual need of the Institute is also considered. The personal preferences of Chiefs of Laboratories for a certain area of research is usually incorporated into the Institute's overall research plans, even if it is not exactly in line with the primary mission. I t is surprising to notice how influential "tradition" is in the selection of research areas. Thus the pioneering work of an Academician at the turn of the century may still be researched by the second and third generation of his students. This is frequently responsible for inbreeding and scientific stagnation. New areas for investigation are possible and Chiefs of Laboratory or individual chemists may petition the Scientific Council for funds and manpower to carry out such work. Such permission is more likely given to a Chief of Laboratory (Professor or Doctor of Science) than to an individual chemist no matter how much merit his request had. Younger and perhaps more imaginative scientists in Universities do not have as much opportunity to start research on their own ideas, as it is practiced in the West. Physical Facilities a n d H u m a n Resources
The description and understanding of the Russian education and research efforts should become more meaningful if it includes some comparisons. The foreign observer notices first the cavernous appearance of the buildings and laboratories. Architectural style is a matter of taste and cannot be argued. However, it seems that prevailing USSR style was popular in the USA forty years ago. The buildings are massive. The hallways, rooms, and laboratories have very high ceilings, which partly account for the uniformly dingy lighting and lack of heat in the winter time. The physical unkeep seems deficient by any standards. It appears that the buildings and laboratories are relatively better in places which are directed by Academicians than the ones headed by Corresponding members or less academically rated directors. Apparently the prestigious Academicians can demand and receive the necessary funds and manpower for a better looking establishment. The laboratories are generally crowded and lack many common safety features. Many times the lack of space results from the storage of hoarded chemicals and supplies, and from the presence of unnecessarily bulky instruments. Many chemists have only four feet of assigned bench space. Private office space is available only to the Professors, and higher ranks. Even the "office" of a Chief of Laboratory, who isnot aProfessor, likely consists of a writing desk in the laboratory. On the other hand, administrative personnel, directors of an Institute or University Deans (heads of departments) have oversized private officeswhich look bare. Laboratory furniture is made of wood and loolis outVolume 48, Number 1, January 1971
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dated. Air conditioners are seldom found, even in laboratories which house delicate analyt,icalinstruments and in locat,ions where the summer temperature normally and regularly exceeds 100°F. The few air conditioners in evidence were not operational. The employee lunch rooms or snack counters in the buildings are an embarassment to the Administrators who will make efforts to keep foreigners out of them. Since the supply and quality of domestic chemicals is erratic, chemicals from East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary are very much in demand. Ground glassware is used in research, and even in teaching laborat,ories. The bulk of it is custom made by the numerous glassblowers that every installation has. Quick service seems to prevail. I n the last five years t,here was a great influx (by Russian standards) of major instruments, domestic and foreign, into the teaching and research laboratories. I n general, the met,ropolitan Universities (e.g., Moscow Universit,~)will be better equipped than the provincial ones. They may have several nmr and mass spectrometers, but some Republic schools have none. Disparaties also exist under one roof. Thus in the new and elite Novosibirsk State University the Physics Department, seems to he very well equipped with all sorts of measuring devices, and major instruments. However, the Chemistry D e p a r h e n t in the same building is old fashioned and lacks even the rudimentary instrumentation and supplies. I n general the Academy of Science Laboratories have more and better instruments than the strictly instructional institutions. Furthermore the Inst,itutes of the USSR Academy are far better furnished, equipped, and. staffed than the ones under the jurisdiction of the Republic Academies. However, not even the best Organic Chemistry Institutes of the USSR Academy can equal, or even approach the diversity, quantity, and quality of t,he instrumentation that is found in a second rat,e American University Chemistry Department with a PhD program. As an example the prestigious Zelinski Institute of Organic Chemistry in Moscow owns three 60-Mc nmr instruments (Russian, American bought through Sweden, and British) and one Japanese 100-Mc nmr. The home built Russian instrument is used only for crude measurements. The Inst,itute also owns (hut not necessarily always operates) two Russian built esr's, three Russian mass spectrometers, and several Russian and East German infrared spectrophotometers. Because of the size of the Zelinski Institute such instrumentation is actually quite modest, by Western standards. The Institute employs one Academician, four Corresponding members, 13 Professors, 24 Doctors of Science and about 100 Candidates of Science, 150 younger scientific workers, and 150 laboratory technicians. Besides, there are about 100 individuals in the shops (electrical, mechanical, and glassblowing) and operators of autoclaves and control instruments. There are also about 40 clerical workers and 20 janitors. The Zelinski Institute also has 10 librarians who are administratively under the control of the All-Academy Library Service. The library is crowded but rather well-stocked with journals and books mostly in the area of organic chemistry and closely related fields. It receives 210 journals of which 80 are of foreign origin. 66
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Only one-third of the foreign journals are the original copies. Because of the lack of hard currency, foreign journals are received in the central Academy library where the journals are reproduced and sent to all the libraries in the USSR which stock the particular journal. Since the journals are not translated they seem to he distributed within one month after receipt in theUSSR. There are some 25,000 books in the Zelinski library of which 4500 are of foreign origin. There are many books and monographs written by Russians that are unknown in the West. Even within the Soviet Union such books are not well-circulated because the original printing may have been for only 1000 copies or less, which places them immediately into the rare hook category. Books are printed on poor quality paper, but are cheap, even the ones which were translated from another language. The Western reader is frequently surprised to find so many Russian publications. However, this is not always a sign of accomplishment of a great number of investigators or a sign of many worthy contributions. It is more likely the result of the legislated "publish or perish" policy. Thus the 142 senior investigators in the Zelinski Institute published in 1969 about 600 papers of which 70 were in foreign journals. The generous co-authorship policy boosts the publication record of individual scientists. The quality of papers published in the Journals of the USSR Academy is usually on a higher level than the ones in the Republic Academy Journals. The Soviet scientists recognize that the quality of their papers often do not measure up to Western standards. As a result they tend t o hold the foreign papers, especially in American Journals, in an unnatural, and sometimes undeserving high esteem. They also tend t o publish their best contributions in foreign journals. The visiting-lecture and seminar policy is still in its infancy in the Soviet Universities and Institutes. The large Zelinski Institute may have only one guest lecture a month presented by a visiting Russian scientist, and perhaps 10 lectures a year from foreign chemists. I n the establishments outside of Moscow, Leningrad, and Novosibirsk, a guest lecture or seminar by a foreign scientist is an event that brings out a large audience out of sheer curiosity. The permission to travel t o foreign countries is difficult for Russians t o obtain because of political reasons and lack of foreign currency. If permission is granted the University or Institute pays for all the travel, subsistence and registration cost,,provided the scientist is an official delegate or is presenting an invited paper. The vacation schedules seem quite generous. Doctors of Science, Chiefs of Laboratory and higher ranks receive eight weeks of vacation. Candidates of Science receive six weeks and all other scientific workers are entitled t o four weeks. The Academy Institutes are on a five day, 40 hr/wk work schedule. The work day starts usually at 9 a.m. and there is a 1-hr rest period during the early afternoon. Schools operate on a 6 da/wk schedule. Students spend a t least 36 hr a week in lectures and laboratory and faculty have a maximum teaching load of 18 hr/wk. Complaints against the high teaching loads are numerous since it makes research activities difficult. Thus
Higher Educational Establishments have many workers that have only research assignment,^. t h a rule administrat,ive personnel in the schools also teach and conduct renearch. Some Vice-Deans heavily engaged in the day to day operat,ion of the department,^ may be relieved temporarily from teachingduties. In comparison, the best manpower is found in the Category I of the Institutes of the USSR Academy, which also cont,ains the most and best scientific equipment. I n the second place are the "elite" educational establishment,^ in Moscow, Leningrad, and Novosibirsk. The three cities, but mostly Moscow, account for about, one half of all scientific personnel with the higher academic degrees. The Republic Academies are in a distant third place and they outrank provincial schools. The gaps between the listed categories are wide and not always noticed by the more hurried foreign visitor. There are also big differencesin the quality within one institution that would not likely be tolerated in Western establishments. The privileged and superior position of the Academies vis d vis the predominantly educational est,ablishments create problems and resentments because the higher ranking Institutes pay better and thus frequently have an oversupply of manpower, and applications for employment. Cooperative arrangements between the Academy and t,he Univer~it~y are frequent but are probably carried out t o an extreme a t the Novosibirsk University a t Akademgordog. Some individual University departments are directly connected to an Academy Institute engaged in carrying out a certain and specified mission in research. In spite of the fact that the U11iversit.y is involved in undergraduate (diploma) work, the school does not seem to offer a good, general, or basic instruction program. This is because too many of its faculty are specialists who arc also full-time employees of an Academy Institute. It is difficult for any Professor, no mattcr how good and qualified he is, to perform well two full-time functions over a period of years. Soviet education is not only free hut the students receive stipends of 50-80 rubles a month depending on the level of st,udy, thc kind of school, and the grades earned. Students t,hink that the stipends should be higher. From this they pay one to two rubles a month for room, and anywhere from a half to two rubles a day for food. Medical and dental ewe is free. Books are obtained rent-free from the school. There are no registration fees or ot,her expenses, and the students receive a 50% rcduction on planes which are inexpensive to start with. The demanding inst,ruct,ional program leaves the students no timc for outssidegainful employment while school is in session. Outside activit.ies usually involve sports and professional student societies (Medelecv Society for Chemists) which are supported by the Communist party, IZomsomol organizations, and the Trade Union Sections. Student workers actively engaged in individual laboratory resemch can become members of thc Student Chapter of the htendeleev Society a t Noscow University. Only 30% of all chemistry student,^ are members, and only students in their last t,mo years of study can get elected to t,he tenmember st,udent council. The advantages of membership rmt in thc fact that thcy receive permission t o present papers, receive prizes for accomplishments, and
get funds to travel as student delegates to foreigo countries. However, the most important benefit is the likelihood of a strong recommendation to engage in graduate (aspkrantura) studies. Students also elect a Study Commission for every course they attend. This Commission can excuse a good fellow student from attending lectures. It also regularly reports the shortcomings of fellow students as well as of the instructors to the Dean and the Scientific Council. Since the contents of individual courses are published, the Study Commission sees to it that it is closely followed. Faculty who deviate from prescribed instructions or who are unusually dull in their lectures we censored by the Administration even to the point of dismissal. It is interesting to note that in the undergraduate chemistry classes there are more women than men. This applies even to chemical engineering students. Consequently there are more womeil workers who are Diploma chemists or engineers. However, there are more men with higher degrees in chemistry or in the higher ranks. Only 5'3& of women become Professors. Presently there are 2 woman Academicians and 8 corresponding members of which only 2 are women. In the total Republic Academies there are 8 women Academicians (2 chemists) and 30 corresponding members (5 chemists). The preponderance of women in chemistry in the schools and in the lower echelons is similar to the distribution of the sexes in the biological sciences, and medicine, but not in mathematics and physics. Conclusions
The Soviet system of education on the primary, secondary, and undergraduate level is more intense than in the United States. After the first fifteen years of schooling students receive a Diploma which is about equivalent to our Master's degree. The Russian Candidate degree which requires an additional three years is below the level of our PhD and their Doctor of Science is frequently a sign of recognition of accomplishments, and not a degree. The Soviet schooling is mostly training in specialities and not education as understood in the West. The training of Russian chemical engineers suffers from the lack of pilot plant experience which in turn slows the development of the Soviet economy. Considerable education and research is done in the Institutes of the USSR and the Republic Academies of Sciences. Russian Academicians and Corresponding members are a group of highly privileged and influential persons, and hold a position to which all Soviet scientists aspire. The research in the Academies is more of the fundamental nature than in the Uuiversities which are not as well-staffed and equipped as the Academies. Since advancements are based on publication records, the legislated "publish or perish" policy produces too many trivial publications. Acknowledgment
The author wishes to acknowledge the financial aid from the National Academy of Sciences and from the Southern Illinois University which made the visit to the USSR possible. The personal assistance and cooperation of the many Soviet chemists and ed~cat~ors in the Academy of SciVolume 48, Number
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ences, Universities, and Technological Institutes is hereby gratefully acknowledged and thanked. Liferature Cited (1) For a moreoomprehensive review see MEDLIN.WILLTAX K., LIND~UIBT, CLARENCE R., A N D SOXIITT. MARSXALL L., "Soviet Education Proersms," U.S. Department of Health, Education, znd Weifare. OE14037, Bulletin 1960, No. 17, U.S. Government Printing Offioe, Washington. 1962. (2) Decree of the RSFSR Minietry of Education No. 75, Maroh 8. 1962, Souiet Education, 4, No. 11, 41 11962) (in English). Orisinal Russian. Khimiia u Shkole, N o . 3 (19621. (3) KOMCHENIO, G. D., Souid Education, 4, No. 10, 26 (1962) in English: Original Russian, Khimiia u Shkole, No. 4 (1962). M., A,. Soviet Edueatian, 4, N o . 11, 47 (1962) in English: (4) V o ~ o m ~ n Originsi Russian, Khimicl u Shkole, N o . 3 11962). (51 Moos, E L I Z A ~ E T"Soviet H, Ednc~tion,"National Council of ArneriohnSoviet Friendship, New York, 1967, p. 111. (6) "Instructions on the Procedure for Awarding Aoademia Dearees and Titles." Order No. 606 a f the Minister of Higher and Secondary
68
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Journal of Chemical Education
Speoiaii~ed Education, September 29. 1967. In Engiiah: Sooid Education. 10, No. 9. 3 11968). (7) DE WITT. NICXOLAS. "Eduoa,tion and Professional Employment in the USSR." National Soience Foundation. United States Government Printina Office. Washinaton. 1961, P. 276. (8) Ibid., p. 716. i ~ 220, 19 (19691. (91 D*vma, R. W., *wo AMANN,R., S c i ~ d i fAm., (10) ZALESKI,E.. KOZLOWBIL. J . P., WIEWERT, H.. DAVIEB,R. W., BERRY, M. J., AMANN,R., "Science Poiiey in the USSR:' Organization for Eoonomie Cooperation and Development, Paris, 1969, P. 149. (11) Ibid.. 0. 151. (12) D E WITT, OP. &I., P. 403. (13) ZALEBKI, et sl.,o p . cit.. p. 338. (14) DE WIT.. op. cit.. P. 379. (15) Dm WIW, OP. cit.. P. 374. 116) Dr. WIT=, on. cit., P. 419. (17) KOROL,ALEXANDER G.. "Soviet Eduoation for Sciences and Teohnology," John Wiiey & Sona, N e n York. 1957, p. 392. (18) Znmanr, et a].. on. d l . , P. 209. (19) Moos, o p . cit., p. 122. (20) ZALEBKI, e t al., o p . cit., p. 243. e t al.. on. cit.. P. 231. (21) Z*~esar, (22) ZATIEBKI,et al., op. cit.. p. 235. (23) ZALEBKI, et al.. on. cit., 0. 221.
