Hydrogen: The Ultimate Fuel and Energy Carrier Gustav P. Dlnga Concordia College, Moorhead, MN 56560
Aquestion-and-answer-type of format is used to write t h i s paper. T h e s e hydrogen facts are written to inform a n interested a n d concerned reader a b o u t t h e production, storage, a n d utilization of hydrogen. T h e private a n d national research organization of m a n y countries a r e establishing a foundation for t h e hydrogen economy ( I ) . T h i s research is focused o n hvdroeen oroduction. storaee. - . transmission, a n d application to various energy-consuming sectors. It is u p to us (teachers, scientists, students, industrialists) to learn a b o u t t h i s fuel and apply its use t o t h e world transportation a n d enerev svstems. It is hoped that t h e following questions a n d ans&rs-will answer most questions a n d p r i d u c e a few m o r e within t h e reader.
. - .
Why c h o o s e hydrogen as a fuel? 1. Crude oil and natural gas are a limited supply. Hydrogen, which is foundin water, isvery abundant and would beavailable to both energy-poor and -rich countries (1,2). 2. Hydrogen can be manufactured from domestic energy resources 12. .?\. ~-,-,.
3. Hydrogen can be substituted for most fuels now in use (2,4). 4. The products of combustion are considered nonpolluting or a t least less polluting (1,2,4-6). 5. Projected products costs are less and competitive (2, 7-9). 6. Better utilization of resources (7): 1ton coal-converted to gasoline fuel-runs bus 440 miles. 1ton coal-converted to electricity fuel-runs bus 480 miles. 1ton coal-converted to methanol fuel-runs bus 520 miles. 1ton coal-converted to hydrogen fuel-runs bus 640 miles. 7. There is a need for another energy carrier, besides electricity, to supply the transportation sector; hydrogen is such an energy carrier; it is hothastorage and transport energymedium that can connect the energy source to the energy consumer (1,5). 8. Hydrogen serves as an agent through which a primary energy source (nuclear, solar) can be stored, transmitted, and utilized to fulfill present and future energy needs (1,5,9).
How is hydrogen produced? 1. Hydrogen is not a primary fuel, it must be manufactured from water with either fossil or nonfossil energy sources (5,8,10). 2. Hydrogen can be produced from water by electrolysis 2H20 2H2 0,. The electricity required for electrolysis can be produced from fossil fuel, hydroelectric power, nuclear fission, geothermal power, tidal energy, wind energy, solar energy, oceanthermal process, or nuclear fusion (2,3,10-13). 3. Another source of hydrogen would be from the thermal cracking of water (3,lO).
+
+
H,O (thermal cracking)
ZWo 'C
,.,,,,
& + 0,
4. However, it is not necessary to use electricity or thermal cracking. In 1973,only one percent ofthe hydrogen produced in the United States was made by electrolysis. The rest was obtained by the reaction of natural gas or light oils with steam at high temperature. This process is called reforming or stream reforming, C,H, + H 2 0 EH7 (3,101. In the near future,itmay be necessary to use other fuel sources with a similar process, e.g., coal gasification (2, 3,14) and gasification of solid wastes (2, 7). How c a n
coal b e used t o produce hydrogen?
1. Coal gasification technology is rapidly advancing and being placed into commercial use. The gasification process is attractive because pollutants, such as sulfur, are more easily removed. Syn-
688
Journal
of Chemical Education
thesis gas or artificial water gas made in this way can then he reformed to hydrogen (2,3,6,14-16). 2. Coal Hz0 CO H2 (water gas). CO H20 CO, Hz (3). 3. 12.7 lb coal 2.15 lh H9 = 1gal. gasoline (7).
+ +
---
+ +
How can solld w a s t e s b e used to produce hydrogen? 1. Gasification of solid wastes and sewage (Ron Billings, The Hydrogen Energy Corporation, Kansas City, MO) is a recent innovation. The synthesis gas formed with air or oxygen is reformed to hydrogen. The solid waste concept solves two problems: (1) disposal of urban refuse and sewage, and (2) a source of hydrogen fuel for Hz-powered vehicles (2, 7,10, 15). 2. Solid waste air CO Hp (3). 3. Cellulose HzO air Hp CO CH1 (17). H2 CO? (18). 4. Biomass H 2 0 +air
+ +
+
- -+ + - +
+
+
What other methods are or may b e used to produce HZ? 1. H* produced from water by thermochemical cycles. Hz0 cycle H2 O2 (5,10,19-24). 2. Photochemical hydrogen production: Solar organometallic compound or enzyme H 2 0 Hz (3.10.22.25-28). 3. Direct thermal decomposition of water (10,22,29-31). 4. Biological and biochemical HI production (22,32-35). 5. Photoelectrochemical H"-. vroduction (3.4.10.22,36-42). 6. HZproduction by direct solar energy conversion on the oceans or ocean-based solar hvdroeen , .. oroduction facilities 13.10.22). . . . ". Satellite rolnr power statlons in which sdnr entrm from a platform in orbit could be beamed down tcr the surface ( 2 , . 8. 2.37 gal H.,O 2.15 lb H, = 1 ,cnl. gasoline I 7,.
-
+
+
+
-
+
.
-
What fuels c a n hydrogen replace a n d how Is it transported? 1. Hydrogen is mentioned as a replacement for natural gas because it can be manufactured by coal gasification and piped in existing natural cas lines (2, 8, 10, 43, 44). Therefore, hydrogen can replace n&al gas and fuels used to heat homes and operate commercial plus residential equipment (2,4,8,45,46). I t should be noted that there are many problems with natural gas lines and that the use of them for HZtransport appears questionable. 2. Pipeline transportation of hydrogen (2,8,10,43,44). 3. Hydrogen can replace gasoline (2.15 lb H? has same energy content as one gallon gasoline), diesel fuel, jet fuel, natural gas, and propane. I t is possible to burn HZinstead ofthe fuels now used by trains, trucks, navy ships, cars, planes, tractors, snowmobiles, and other ground vehicles (4, 7,8,4547). 4. Hydrogenused byrailroads would mostlikely be transported as a liquid carried in a cryogenic storage tank ear (4,8,45). 5. Hl can replace the diesel fuel or coal used in operating municipal power plants and electrical utilities to give hydrogen communities (7,8, 10,4860). 6. H2 8s aircraft fuel (2,4,8,45). 7. Hydrogen homestead (7,51). ~
~
Why Is hydrogen combustion nonpolluting? 1. The product of hydrogen combustion with air is water vapor and negligible pollution when the peak temperature is limited. Some oxides of nitrogen are created at very high combustion temperatures (2000 'C); fortunately, the autoignition temperature of hydrogen is only 585 'C (2,4,8,45,52). 2. Aninternal combustion engine fueled by hydrogen can beadjusted so that the emission of NO, is 200 times less than in present vehicles. A practical means for controlling the combustion temperature is to induce water into the hydrogen-air mixture. With water injection the exhaust of a hydrogen-driven vehicle is only returning water vapor to the atmosphere, i.e., no air pollution and no acid rain (1,4,6,8,9,45,53).
In what ways is hydrogen better than other automotive fuels? 1. Hydrogen d o e not experience problrms associnrd uith liquid fuels such as vapor lock, cold wall qurnching, inndequnre v a p w irarion,poor mixing,and so forth. Knglne wpm is reduced (7,471. 2. Hydrogen combustion does not produce toxic products such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulfur, organic acids, and carbon dioxide. Acid rain and the CO?-. areenhouse effect are eliminated (1,4,6-9,45,54). 3. Hydrogen hasa high flame speed, wide flammability limits, a n d a high detonation temperature with lean burning, which gives an improved engine efficiency. Hydrogen contains 2.75 times as much energy as the same weight of gasoline (7,8,45,55,56). 4. Hydrogen is a g a s a t -420 "F (-253 "C, 20.13 K); therefore, there is no problem in starting an engine a t the coldest winter temperatures, i.e., instant start-up (2, 7,8,55,56).
How much more efficient is a hydrogen engine than a gasoline engine? 1. As with any gasoline engine, efficiency depends on driving conditions. At freeway speed the hydrogen engine has demonstratedat least a 20%increase in efficiency. In general an auto operating a t 20 mpg will operate a t 30 mpg equivalent on hydrogen (7,8,45). 2. Under s t o p g o city driving conditions, where the throttled gasoline engine performs very poorly, the hydrogen engine is about 50%more efficient (7,8,45).
Why is a hydrogen-powered engine more efficient? . . ~ 1. The thermodynamic cycle for hydrogen is much closer to the ideal Otto cycle than for either a gasoline or a diesel engine. In addition. the comoression ratio can be higher. Wide flammabilitv limits make pow& regulation possible hithrottling only the fuel rather than the fuel-air mixture (4, 7,45,56). 2. Hydrogen engines demonstrate the efficient operation of a diesel and the high rpm characteristics of a gasoline motor (4,7,45).
How is hydrogen stored in a vehicle and in large quantities?
2. Once the hydrogen economy gets going, an empty hydrogen tank will he exchanged a t a hydrogen gas station for a full one (4,7,8, 45).
How safe Is metal hydride storage of hydrogen if the car is involved in a collision? 1. The metal hydrides provide a safe method far fuel storage in hydrogen-powered vehicles. Since the hydrogen is chemically combined with the metal as a metal hydride, it can only burn after it is released from the metal. Liberation of the fuel requires heat of sufficient temperature either from the engine exhaust or from other sources (2,4,7,8,22,45). 2. The metal hydride tank is insulated with noncombustible material. If the tank is ruptured, most of the hydrogen will remain stored in themetal hydride avoidinganeaplosion. (2,5, 7,22,45). 3. Safety demonstrations have been conducted in which a fire was placed under a hydride tank. Armor-piercing, incendiary bullets have also been fired into hydride containers. Even in crash tests, the metal hydride system did not explode and proved to be much safer than gasoline storage (4, 7,44,63).
What are the current problem areas for hydrogen as a transportation fuel? 1. One problem would be the mass of the metal hydride storage tank. For an automobile to cruise nonstop for 300 miles would require 1900 lb (volume90 gal. or 12ft9 of FeTiHp. This problem could be solved with a light-weight metal hydride, which would allow the car to travel the same distance with only 425 lb (volume 50 gal. or 7.5 ftl) of MgH? or MgaNiH, (4,7,45). 2. Metal emhrittlement is probably the worst prohlem in a hydrogen metal svstem (2.4. 7.22.69-71). . 3. Some other problems are limited availability of suitable hydrides, cost and hydride surface degradation by CO plus H 2 0 (4,
What is being done to solve these problems, and can they be solved?
1. Hydrogen gas is stored in a tank as a "compound" with metal alloy particles. The iron-titanium alloy, FeTi, acts as asponge to absorb the hydrogen, thus becoming a metal hydride ( F e T i H d . Its physical appearance is like that of a fine silvery powder. The safest method for hydrogen storage is the "metal hydride" system (3.4, 7,8,22,44,45,57-65). 2. When hydrogen combines with the metal (in granular form or particles), an exothermic reaction occurs. The gas is thus retained (stored) in these metal oartieles until some enerev (heat) isapplird r u r d e n r ~ r h ehydrogkand build up the preiwremthe tnnks.'l'his enwm is ihtained frum rhc engine rrhnuit, whwh is ordinarily unsttd in a conventional cnginr 13. 1. 7, 8. 22.14, 3.5, 59.62). 3. The two low-temperature hydrides, FeTiH* and LaNisH; hold hydrogen loosely and evolve it a t low temperature. On the other hand, the high-temperature hydrides, MgH and MgzNiH4 only release hvdroeen , .. a t hieh temoerature since thev have hieh binding enthnlpirs. Therefore, acomt,indtion ofthew four tr wed i,n a hu,e.g., FeTlH? is used tostart an cnyinr. and u n w it uarmi up rhe exhaust ir used to heat the MyH v a t r m (3.4. 7 , o, 22.44.45. 5 % 6.5,fi6,. I. Hbdmgcn c w l d alw br stored in h~gh-preswre~ 3 cyltndrrs s or a0 a I:qu:d, but thew DIP less dwrahle f n m a safety strndpuinr. Thrsr sturaar sssrrmsnre used fur rocketaand ~ . r m lIwrxrrndrd ~l to trains an2 a&lsnes (3,4, 7,9,45). 5. Hydrogen in metallic form may he the fuel tank of the future (2, 7,8,55). 6. 2.15 lh H? = 1 gal. gasoline = 110,940 BTU = occupies 0.80 ft'as hydride, 0.49 ft" as liquid and 0.17 ftTas solid (2, 7). 7. Storage of large quantities of hydrogen and methods of storage have been compared (58,67,68).
1. Extensive research is currently being conducted to develop a lighter storage container and metal alloys resistant to hydrogen enbrittlement. The level of research funding in these areas has been very small in the past. The prospects for significant improvement is quite good (2,3, 7,8,45, 71). 2. Already, hydride storage systems are available and tested that meet vehicle design requirements for many applications such as city buses, cars, trains, warehouse vehicles, and others (3,7,8,22, 4.5, 57, 59, 64).
In the hydrogen storage system, does the hydride need to be replaced each time it is used? 1. No. Charging and discharging of the hydride tanks is a process that can be repeated an indefinite number of times provided that
What is the projected cost of hydrogen?
the hvdride material does not became contaminated. Should contamination accidentally occur, the hydride can he reactivated by heating (3,4, 7,8,22,45).
What about the Hindenburg mishap? 1. In this mishap, hydrogen, which was used t o provide buoyancy for the Hindenburg airship, was in gaseous form rather than in the safe, ~ a w d e r e dhydride form. In view of the safety problems associated with such use, it is amazing that there were so few hydrogen fires in the airship industry (4, 7,8). 2. Nearly all the 161 rigid airships built and flown between 1897 and 1940, used hydrogen for lift. Of the 20 destroyed by accidental fires, 17 were military incidents during World War I. As a result of these accidents the "hydrogen syndrome" still persists (4, 8, 64).
Does hydrogen as a fuel have anything in common with the hydrogen bomb? 1. No! The only similarity between hydrogen as a fuel and the hydrogen bomb is the word hydrogen. 2. Hydrogen used as a fuel involves a chemical reaction, while the hvdroeen bomh is a nuclear fusion reaction. When controlled " " nuclear fusion plants become operational, in the future, they may be an energy source for the manufacture of hydrogen by the thermal cracking of water (S22).
1. The major source of hydrogen available today is from fossil fuels, especially coal gasification and catalytic steam reforming of methane. A recent study indicates that hydrogen generated in Idrye quantities Iron, thrse sc8urrea wdl cost 1- 5 cents pQrC a h n u f y ~ s d i n~r q . ~ i v d mAnl>ther t. cnlculati~nindicares 12.7 11, coal 2 . l i lh I! = I gnl. gnsolme = coil :W cents ,.I. 7.o. 67, tib,.
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2. With the advent of controlled nuclear fusion as an energy source, i t has been estimated that hydrogen could be produced by splitting ocean water on large floating platforms for 6 cents per gallon of gasoline equivalent (2,10,22). 3. Solar-based hydrogen production, though high now, is expected to be cast competitive with all other production methods by the year 2000 A.D. (1,2,68). 4. I t should he noted, however, that the above estimates do not include distribution and retailing costa, nor federal, state, and local taxes. Thoueh future cost is not well established. there is gwd reasun to believe that the cost of hkdropen will he a m p e t i tive with gasoline long hefore petroleum storks nenrdepletam (2, ~~~~~
~~
~~~
Can my car be converted to operate on hydrogen? 1. Yes, in fact any engine can be convertedor modified for hydrogen combustion by increasing the compression ratio, adding a gaseous carburetor, changing the timing, changing plug gap, and making provisions for water induction. However, widespread production and distribution of the fuel must be established before use by the general public becomes practical (2,4, 7). 2. Conversion to hydrogen has been and is accomplished even though parts and components are not in mass production. The prospect for buying commercial car conversion kits is improving (2,3, 7,10,22,45). 3. The cost estimate of a metal hvdride storaee svstem with 320-km range ir e h o ~ $4400 t for a 557-kg FcTi hJride system and $69: fora 191-kg lighrweipht Mgalloy hydridesysrem. A comhinnr~on of the rwo hydridesystems will be uced c m earsand huses t7.59). Where would I get hydrogen for my car in the future? 1. Owners of small urban vehicles could manufacture their own hydrogen by a garage electrolysis system. Commuter cars and fleet-operated vehicles would be refueled with hydrogen by overnight electrolysis of HpO (4, 7). 2. In a total hydrogen economy, owners of all sizes of cars would refuel a t "service stations." The entire refueling or recharging of the metal hydride tank can be designed to take place in 8 to 15 minutes (4, 7,8). Where will hydrogen be used in transportatlon in the near luture? 1. At the present time, hydrogen distribution is not widely avail-
able. Thus, the most economical use in transportation is hy fleet operators who can maintain central hydrogen refueling facilities. Examples of fleet operations include delivery vans, taxis, bus systems, trains, ships, warehouse vehicles, airplanes, and commuter vehicles (2,4,5,10,22,45). 2. Hydrogen could also be transpartedhy present natural gas pipelines (2,4,8,10,68).
Since hydrogen is made from other energy sources, how will its use help in the present world energy situation? 1. 1 ,11 primary energy sources can be tns~din the hydrogen prnducing pructss (&3.7. lu, 22.45. 19. 7J1. 2. Adoption of hydrogen fuel will helpcountries to he~umeindepmdent of foreign oil. Energy from combustion of urban refuse can also be used to produce hydrogen (2,101. 3. The adoption of hydrogen will help the United States become energy independent far the 100-200 years that our coal reserves last. Manv countries will be able to use a nondeoletine . - enerev -. source such as solar energy to convert ocean water into hydrogen (2,3, 10,22). What is the cost of hydrogen versus other fuels? On an equal energy basis, the cost for fuels a t the refinery is (7):
Gasoline
Electroiyiic Coal Hydrogen Hydrogen
*Upper number neglects
Diesel
Elemolytic Hydrcgen (diesel operation]
eniciency dilferencer: lower
number
dilferences.
890
Journal of Chemical Education
Coal Hydrogen (diesel operation)
includes eflicisncy
What countries are doing hydrogen fuel research? 1. Argentina-They are investigating Hz energy systems (74). 2. Austria-This is a special look a t air transport (75). 3. Australia-Ford cars tested and small engine tests with Hs a t the U. of Melbourne; GM vehicle tested by the hydroelectric commission of Tasmania; and U. England in Armidale is testing for the most suitable hvdride to use in vehicles and industrv (7, 76). 4. Canada-Hz-fueled Buick by Institute of Hydrogen Systems (IHS) in Ontario; Hz-fueled commuter railroad in Montreal; Hz vehicles such as intercity buses and transport trucks by Ontario Hydrogen Task Force; special commission to study alternate fuels by House of Commons; fleet vehicles using HZand laboratory energy research a t the U. of Toronto; Hp fueled buses by Urban Transportation Development Corporation; and Hg PIOduction, storage, Hz tractor (8,77-79). 5. China-They continue research on Hn-fueled engines (80) and a bibliography of Chinese research on hydrogen energy (81). 6. Germany, Federal Republic of German (F.R.G.)-Hz-fueled Berlin Fleet with Mereedes-Benz station wagons using three tanks per vehicle, total mass 365 kg, total vol. of 135 L with storage for 5 kg H? = 18.2 Lgasoline, and fuel range of 130 km in city driving; Daimeler-Benz (DB) is operating five passenger cars and three vans with hydrides in Stuttgart, each van has a total tank weightof340 kg = 5.4 kgH2 = 19.7 Lgasolineand fuel range 100 km of city driving; Deutsehe Forshung und Versuchsanstalt fur Luft und Raunfahrt (DFVLR) have developed liquid H? storage system for BMW sedan, operating range 200 km, tank 95 kg and liq. Hz 8.5 kg, refill time 8 min.; and Karlsruhe Nuclear Center (KC) used HZ fuel cell to operate Volkswagen pickup trucks (8,82-84). 7. India-The use of hydrogen as a fuel is being tested a t Banaras Hindu U.and Indian Institute of Technology (IIT); an overview of hydrogen research in India; and studies regarding a Hz-diesel dual-fuel eneine (4.8.85-89). " ... 8. Italy-Hp-operated motorcycle engine tested a t the institute di Macchine, U. di Pisa (6,10,90). 9. Iraq-Hydrogen production (25). 10. Israel-Storage and transport systems (58). 11. Japan-In 1974 Japan developed Hz-fueled compression engine a t Kyoto, U.; HZstorage and use on Musaki-1 trucks, Datsuns, and other cars carried out a t the Musaki Institute ofTechnology (MIT). a Musaki-4 sedan (Suzukil with a 80-L H7 lic~uidtank has a &nge of 400 km, H2also used by Toyota and ~ i s s a n(8,56, 91-95). 12. Poland-Research on the air-fuel ratios for Hz-fueled engines, Institute of Automobiles, Technical U., Krakow (8). 13. South Africa-Hydrogen research a t U. of Natal (8). 14. Sweden-A study of the potential use of Hp from 1985 to 2025 (96).
15. Switzerland-Batelle, Centre de Recherche de Genive, metal hydride research applied to vehicular propulsion (45). 16. United States-The use of Hz as a fuel is fairly widespread; Billings corporation now The Hydrogen Energy Corporation of Kansas City, MO, has manufactured Hz and used the following with hydrogen fuel-Peugeot Sedan, U S . Postal Service American Motors Jeeps in Independence, MO, Buick Century, Jacobsen tractors, Winnebago buses, and home appliances; Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) research on metal hydrides; Clean Fuel Institute (CFI), Riverside, CA, hydrogen-operated buses, Dodge Colts, and Dodge trucks; Denver Research Institute (DRI) developed Hz-fueled Dodge pickup trucks, caterpillar diesel engines, and forklift trucks; Department of Energy (DOE) has provided funding far many hydrogen projectors; E:F Technology, Inc. (E:F) since 1975 has studied Hp fuel for cars, buses, trucks, and trains; Ford Motor Company (FMC) studied hydrogen fuel and concluded not compatible until the 21st century; Hydrogen Consultants Inc. (HCI) worked on hydrogenfueled underground mining equipment, caterpillar 3304 diesel engine, and Mitsubishi 18-passenger Rosa bus; Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) involved in converting automobiles, boats, and even s village into Hz energy; Jet propulsion Laboratory (PL) tested H2-fueled Chevrolet V-8 engine; Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) Hz fuel research using fuel-cellpowered plants, fuel-cell-powered fork lift, trucks, buses, taxis, vans, autos, freight locomotives, and inland-water tow boats; Rocketdyne Div., Rockwell International, Canoga Park, CA, hydrogen embrittlement of metals and its control; Solar Energy
Research Institute (SERI) converted 1980Chevrolet Citation to HI fuel; Solw Turbines International ( S T I ) has researched lightweight metal hydride storage s y s t e m s ; U. o f Miami along with Hawthorne Research and Testing Inc. tested Hz-fueled engines, and one project was to develop a new engine for HI operation; U. o f M i c h i g a n investigated electronically controlled hydrogeninjection; and hydrogen-fueled humansettlements (2, 4,7,8,45,97,98). 17. Union o f Soviet Socialist Republic-Hn vehicles tested by the Institute for Problems in Machinery with the Academy of Science and the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic E n e r g y ; and a bibliography on the hydrogen technology in the USSR (8, 99, 100).
18. Yugoslavia-Hydrogen
production (12).
44. Cox, K.; Willismsan, K.. Jr. Hydrogen Its Technology and Implic~fions.Vol. 11. Trowition ondStomge: CRC: B a a Raton, FL. 1977. 45. Vezirog1u.T. Hydrogen Energy,Port 6;Plenum: New York. 1975. 46. Guth,M.Int. JHydrogonEnarg. I986,11(41,257. 47. Technical papers: 76W1-"A hydrogen powerad maaa transit system", Billings, R.. 1976: 77~2-"Refueling hydrogen transit fleet., Part A, economics", Beyer, R., 1977: 77003-"Refueling hydrogen transit fleet. Part B data", Wwlley, R.,1977. The Hydrogen E n e r n Corporation, Kansas City, MO, 1978. 48. '"Hydrogen gas proposed as alternate energy source"; D.8 Moines S u n d w Regiafer. Des Moines. IA, July 10, 1977. p 8A. 49. . , ~ h ~ ~ ~ ~ ofhydrogen-A ~ ~ ~ ~ i plan", ~ l and i ~"BECIFW ~ t i s~t& n cod gasification plant for Forest city 1owa":The Hydrogen Energy corporstian, Kansas Cty, MO, No". 10. 1977. 50.
The following quote from a publication by Awad and Veziroglu (9)will serve as a conclusion t o this paper: When all factors (production costs, utilization efficiencies, environmental effects, effective cost, eonsewation and e c o n o m i c s ) are taken into account in comparing SNG ( s y n t h e t i c natural gas), Syn-Gas (synthetic g a s o l i n e ) and hydrogen, hydrogen comes on top in all counts. Hydrogen has the highest utilization e f f i c i e n c y , is the most compatible fuel with the biosphere, the most costeffective, the most energy conserving, the most resource conserving, the least capital i n t e n s i v e , and the most inflation-fighting fuel.
Technicelpapor:78WB-8WB-'Progressreportonhydragenpmduefionandutilieationfor
eommunifvand vehicular oower". Ruekman. J. et a1.1978. The Hydro~enEnergy ~orporsti&,Kanss. c i t y , . ~ ~ . 51. Technical paoar: 78W5-"Hydrogen Homestead", Billings, R., 1978, The Hydrogen Energy Co;poration, Ksnssa City, MO. 52. Teehniesl paper: 73M)1-"History of hydrogen fueled internal combustion engines". Billinx~.R.:Lvneh. F.. 1973,TheHvdrmen EnerwCornoratian. KannasCitv, MO.
~
y Energydcorporation. ~ Kansas ~ City, ~ MO. ~
~
54. Dahiya. R.Inl. J. Hydrogen Enarg. 1984 11W. 419. 55. McCarty. R.; Cox, K.: Williamnon. K., Jr. Hydrogen: 11s Technology and Irnplicotians, Vol. 111, Hydrogen proper fie^: CRC: Boca Raton. FL, 1975. 5s. Ikegsmi, M.; Miwa, K.: Shioji, M. Inf. J. Hydrogen Enorgy 1982,7,341.
mebl h;dAdes",
Billings, k. 1974. Tho k d r o g e n Energy Cor&tio".
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August 1988
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