J. Edmund White Southern Illinois Universitv Edwardsville. 62026
I
I
Chemistry and the USA Two centuries in parallel
By the time they take a course in chemistry, young people in the USA will have had a thorough exposure to their country's history, and most of them probably will remember the major events, crises, and personalities. At least, they will recall them when reminded. Buildina on this ~ r i o knowledge r is especially attractive as a meansof introdicing the history of chemistrv, because the country and the modern science were founded at the same time and, during the past 200years, have passed through similar stages of development. Both survived periods analogous to infancy, childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood before achieving maturity. During this maturation process, the sudden advances and the longer latent periods in the accumulation of chemical facts and theoretical insights parallel rather closely the peaks and plateaus in the growth of the USA. The principal feature of this paper is a Table of Events, which lists chronologically, in parallel columns, major occurrences in the histories of both countrv and science as well as the names ofindividusls normally nssociated with an went or orriod.Thr entries haw b e ~ n s e ~ a r a t eintu d peridsu,hirh co;er similar ranges of years. u he ranges and names for the periods in US. history are taken from Morison' and those for chemistry (with modifications) from Ihde.2 To elaborate on the outline provided by the table, the teacher may wish to talk about the significance of the events, the conflicts which led to change, and the new directions of development resulting from these changes. Some suggestions are offered in the following short descriptions of the periods. Periods of Revolution. Begun by Bacon, the break from the authoritari&sm, mysticism, and secrecy of alchemy was hastened in the seventeenth century by Boyle, Newton, and others. Bv the 1770's. the new a. ~.o r o a c hto exoerimentation, the recognition of the importance of accurate weighing, and the ooen communication of results had laid the basis for the new ;hemistry of combustion and respiration after the discovery of oxygen. Somewhat analogously, during the seventeenth century concepts of the dignity of the individual and of freedom from political and religious tyranny were brought to the New World. In the 1760's, England's military conquests and her vigorous attempts to consolidate her colonial system had prepared the way for a representative form of government after the armed rebellion. I'~rrod>of 0rganr:ntim and Integration. Hothcountryand scienrr were"unt\,inrc . - their mother's awon-strinas"and heginning to develop their personalities,. testing thk new philosophies which created them and exploring possible paths of development. The confusion and counter-productivity of much of the activity in chemistry during the early nineteenth centurv is similar to the frustratine efforts of each of the thirteen original ststrs to go\,ern itself and to establish relation, with the uthrrs hefore unification in 17RY.'l'he adolescent country expanded territorially and established itself as a nation on the global scene. The adolescent science expanded its fund of facts and asserted itself as a science. Raoid . Droeress . " was not without oroblems. The USA was in conflict over states' rights and slavery. In chemistry, the conflict was over the relative weights of atoms; a problem was the lack of organization. Solutions to all came in the 1860's through an internal war, through acceptance of Avogadro's theory, and through recognition of the Periodic Law. Periods of Specialization and Dissolution. Suitability of ~
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738 / Journal of Chemical Education
the general theme of comparable stages of development is problematic for these periods. The division of a country, leading to internal war and eventual rebuilding, is not the same as the division into specialized fields of a science which has become so laree and varied that one Derson cannot master all of it. On the ;her hand, both involie a destruction of an old order. a re-orientation. and a start in new directions. At the end of these periods, both science and country were hecoming major influences in world affairs. Prior to the 20th century, chemistry developed in the Eastern Hemisphere; not until 1875 did an American make a significant chemical contribution. Factors in causing this long separation were (1) the destruction by the Revolution of the active scientific exchange which existed between England and the colonies, (2) a great emphasis on practical studies, and (3) a general suspicion of "philasophers" because of elitist and nonpractical connotations. Periods of Power. The nradical orientation of the USA mav haw kept chemistry out at first, but now prnctirality brought it in.'l'hefirit industrial researrh laboratories wereestahlished in Germany, but American firms soon followed this lead, and chemistry began its shift to the Western Hemisphere. Soon the USA was enthusiastic over the future opened by "applied science;" everything was possible through science. In boys' fiction, the inventor Tom Swift and his miraculous machines replaced the heroes created by Horatio Alger, who won their places in the business world through personal pluck, industry, and honesty. The recognition of applied chemistry as an integral part of the industrial world came with World War 1, called the "chemist's war," due to the importance of the production of poisonous gases and nitrates. This war also brought recognition that the USA had hecome a maior and nowerful countrv. The nation, however, was not readyfor world leadership a i d drew back into an isolationist nosition. In the 1920's, chemistry began to move to a position of power based on the new fundamental theories of the structure of atoms and of the bonding between atoms. Reliable prediction of chemical behavior led to synthetic production of fibers, drugs, and rubber, all of which played a vital role in the next war. Fundamental contributions began to appear in the USA; the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry came in 1914, the second and third in 1932 and 1934. Pvriods of Cl'orld 1.rodrr.ship ond S e r c i c ~The second \tlorld War again demonstrat~lthe world influence of the USA and of chemistry. The two now are wedded in a tight partnership with little likelihood of divorce, and the future of each seems dependent on the other. Together they face societal problems in health, food, energy sources, and disposal of wastes as thev enter their third centuries. ('onclusr~nzAfter studenti have an understanding of what cheniistrv was and what it now is-a sucr~ssful.mature sciencelthey should consider that chemistry is essential to the future of mankind and must continue to grow in understanding and wisdom in order to discharge creditably theres~onsihilitiesattendant uoon success. Presented in the "poster session," Fourth Biennial Conference on Education, Wis.,August, 1916, ' Morison, Samuel E., "An Hour of American History," Rev. ed., B~~~~~press, ~ ~,960. ~ t ~ ~ , Ihde, Aaron J., "The Development of Modern Chemistry," Harper &Row,New York, 1964.
DEVELOPMENTS IN CHEMISTRY Major Events Major Persons 1770-1800: Revolution
1774 Discovery of Oxygen Importance of Quantitative Adalysis
Priestley. Scheele Klapworth
1778 First Chemical Journal
Crell
DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S.A. Major Events Major Persons 1760-1789: Revolution
1776 Declaration of Independence
Franklin. Jefferson
Laws of Chemical Combination
U'ar of American Independence
Washington
Demise of Phlogiston Theorv
1783 Peace Treaty with Great Britain
1788 Ratification of Constitution 1789 First Textbook of Modern
Franklin. Madison. Morris
Lavoider
Chemist-
1791 Ratification of Bill of Rights 1800-1860: Organization and Fundamental Thwry 1805 Atomic Theory 1808 Law of Combining Volumes
Dalton Gay-Lusrae
1811 Avogadlo's Theory
Avogadlo
Problem of Atomio Weights
Beneliur, Dalton
Electrochemistry
Daw, Faraday
1828 Urea from Ammonium
Wohler
Cyanate Growth of Organic Synthesis Discovery of New Elements Improvements in Analysis Beginnings of Thermodynamics and Bioehemirtry Chemical Instruction in universities
Hamilton Marshall
1803 Louisiana Purchase
Jefferson Lewis. Clark
1812 U'a with Great Britian Clay. Calhoun 1815 Treaty of Ghent 1815-1848: Democracy Dissension over States' Rights Expansion t o the West Addition of New States Humanitarian Reforms Development of Tonwortation
Monroe J . Q. Adams
Jackson UrebEteI
Liebig Bumen. Carnot Claurius. Dumas Parteur
Many Practical Applications: Portland Cement Galvanized Iron Safety Matcher Steel Vulcanization of Rubber Photography
1860-1895: Speeislizntion 1860 Aeeeptance of Avogadlo's
Financial System Judiciary System
Applications of Steam and Electricity
Literary Revival R e f o m s in Education
1848-181'1: Dissolution
Cannizzaro
Theory
1865 Benzene Rinz
Kekule
1869 Periodic Law
Mendeleev. L. Mever
1874 Structure of Carbon
van't Hoff. Le Be1
Question of Slavery in New States Anti-Slavery Movement Growth of Merchant Marine
Calhoun. Dred Scott
1861 War Between the States
Lincoln. Davis. Grant. Lee
1866 Reconstruction
Tact Bagged'
Dougla~
Ku Klua Klan
1869 Tran~eontinentdRailmad
Compounds
1875 Phase Rule 1876 American Chemical Society
Gibbs
Studies of Solutiom. Gaees. Eleetraehemistry, Dyes. Proteins. Catdysis. Drugs, Coordination Compounds
Amhenius. Bayer. Fischer. M e y u Nemst. Ostwald. perkin; Raoult. vxn der Kraals. mn't H0ff. U'erner Hall uriIey
1886 Aluminum Eleeeolvtieallv Public Health Movement
1871-1939: Power Ruthlem Business Practice Social lniustiee
1890 Sherman Antitrust Act
Chemistry in I n d u r t r ~ DuPont 119.51939: -.-- Power Roentgen 1895 Discovery of X-Rays Becquerel 1896 Discovery of Radioactivity Thomson 1897 Charge t o Mass of Electron Ramsay 1898 DiscoverY of Rare Gases
1896 Populism
Bryan
1898 Spanish-American War 1903 Panama Canal
1905--10 Fixation of Nitrogen
1911 Nuel- Model of Atom 1913 Theory of Hydrogen Atom 1914 1st Nobel Prize in Chemistry t o American
T. Rooswelt
Reform Movement Rutherford Bohr Richards
1917 First World U'ar
Wilson
Prosperity Prohibition Isolation
Harding Coolidge
Aston
1926 Wave Mechanical Theorv
Sehroedinger
of Atom Biological Compounds (Vitamins. Hormones, Enzymes)
Merk. F l o ~ Williams, Stanley
Volum 53. Number 12, December 1976 / 739
DEVELOPMENTS IN CHEMISTRY Major Events Major Penonr
1930 Molecular Bonding Polymers Synthetic Fibers Anti-bioties
DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S.A. Maior Events Major Persons
Pading Carothers Fleming
194e1975: Service to Mankind 1940 Man-Made Elements
S e a b a g , McMillan
New Instrumentation
Raman
1939-1975: World Leadership 1941 Second World War
ROOEeYelt
1945 Establishment of United New Approaches in Biochemistw
1953 Nueleic Acids & Alpha Helix
Woodward
Pauling. Corev. Franklin. Crick. Watson
Nations Recovery of Europe Port-war ProsPerit~ "Cold War" 1950 Korean War Re-emergence of Supreme C o w t International Crises
1957 Civil Rights Act
Studies of Enzymes. Metabolism, Organo-Metallic Compounds. Mechanisms of Reactions Practical A~plieationr: Fertilizers. Pesticides. Herbicides, Plastics, Textiles. Fuels Health Care: Diaenosir.. Drugs. .. chemothezap;
New ProblemaJ'New Frontier" Vietnam Involvement Counterculture Movement 1963 A s a s i n a t i o n of Kennedy "Welfare State" Legislation Space Exploration
Practical Problems: Deterioration of Environment Hazards t o Health Threat of Radioaetiaty Contamination Depletion of Natural Resources Starvation of Excess Population
Practical Problems: Simultaneous Recession-Inflation lntegmtion in Schools Women's Rights Enewy Sources Environmental Quality International Role
740 / Journal of Chemical Education
Malrhall Truman MaeArthur Warren
Kennedy
Johnson
