INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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(9) (10) (11) (12)
W.,Schumacher, E. A., and Cahoon, S . C., J . Electyochem. Soc., 94,99 (1948). Klagstrum, H. A., IND.ENG.CHEM.,37, 608 (1945). Langley, J. W., J . Am. Chem. Soc., 16, 49 (1894). MacMullin, R. B., J . Electrochem. Soc., 96,21C (1949). Mullen, J. P., and Howard, P. L., Trans. Elect,ocitem, Soc., 90,
(13) (14) (15) (16)
Murray, R. L., IND.ENG.CHEM.,41,2155 (1949). Parsons, C. L., J . Am. Chem. Soc., 20,568 (1898). Roush, G. A., J. IND.EXG.CHEW.,1, 286 (1909). Schrodt, J. P., Otting, W. J., Schoegler, J. O., and Craig, D. X . ,
Vol. 43, No. 2
( 8 ) Heise, G.
529 (1946).
Trans. EZectTochem. SOC.,90,405 (1846). (17) Schumacher, J. C., Ibid., 92,45 (1947). (18) Simons, J. H., and co-workers, J . Electrochem. Soc.. 95, 47 (1 945). (19) Thomas, U. E., Farster, F. T., andHaring, H. E., Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 92,313 (1947). (20) Vorce, L. D., Ibid., 86, 69 (1944). (21) White, N.C., Ibid., 92, 15 (1947). (22) Whitney, W. R., J. ISD. ESG. CHmr., 1, 64 (1909).
L. H. FLETT
THE
dyestuff industry was the earliest of the great synthetic organic chemical industries. It supplied a need which nature had t'aken care of since the first man daubed his skin and clothes with vegetable dyes. Katural dyestuffs had been a coveted article of international trade. With prices ranging up to several hundred dollars a pound, they were economically important enough to upset the trade balance between nations. The accidental discovery of mauve, the first synthetic dye, by Perkin in 1856 and t'he subsequent establishment of a synthetic organic chemical industry have had a most profound effect on mankind. The synthetic organic chemical industry has furnished an unending parade of useful chemicals to enrich our civilization beyond imagination. The ready availability of healing drugs, fine fabrics made with synthetic fibers, easily molded synthetic resins, rubber, flavoring materials, detergents, and all of the other synthetic substitutes of nature's gift,s can be traced to the fundamental industrial organic chemistry unfolded in the early development of t8hesynthetic dyes. At first, advances in the synthetic dye industry were rather slow, but before the turn of the century the dye industry was world wide. Although the impact of t,he Perkin discovery was world wide, the chemistry of dyestuffs and the dyestuff industry developed and flourished in Germany more than in any other country. Possibly this was a result of the educational system which a t that time developed and inspired great numbers of young organic chemists, whose fundamental studies unlocked the secrets of color chemistry. During that period, many American chemists found it advisable to complete their st>udiesin Germany. At the outbreak of World War I, the synthetic organic chemical industry, which included t,he dye indust'ry and the synthetic drug industry, was a monopoly of the Reich, because German technical and scientific advances had far outstripped the rest of the civilized world. When the hostilities of World War I started, the English government established a blockade of German ports and effectually cut off American imports of the German dyes which had become a necessary part of our economy. Later when xve entered World War I, intermediat.es and dyes became a very necessary part of our military preparation. I n 1914, the combined dyestuff capacity of the United States was only a small fraction of our normal requirement,s. American dyestuff manufacturers had been successful in the commercial development of a small group of dyestuffs, but they ha,d neither the variety of dyes nor the capacity t o supply American needs. Most of the organic chemists available in the United States had
been educated in Germany aiid m r on ~ the staffs of aradcniic institutions; industrial oiganic chemists were practically unknonn. However, when urgent necessity demanded expansion of the American dye and drug industry beyond the means of the fern dye chemists available the enthusiasm and the adaptability of these American chemists soon made themselves felt, and by the time World War I came to a close in 1918, there was a wcll established line of organic dyes and synthetic drugs. What Jvas more important, there had been developed a substantial group of experienced industrial organic chemists. The end of the war found the dye manufacturers in an untenable situation. Because of the necessity of developing a large number of dyestuffs, it had not been possible to develop highly efficient commercial processes. The possibility of competition from German factories with know-how and cheap labor seemed to many people to be an insurmountable handicap to the future. Through the efforts of many individuals, including Francis P . Garvan and the members of the Division of Dye Chemistry of the AMERICANCHEMICAL SOCIETY, a tariff was established which has permitted the American dye industry to grow and to become the greatest dye industry that the world has ever seen and a strong factor in our national defense. During the postwar period of uncertainty, many chemists n ho by that time had become highly skilled in organic research left the industry t o enter other new organic chemical ventures. These trained scientists became the nucleus of the vast American organic chemical industry on which our country now depends for the many organic cheniicds 1%hich have long since become national necessities. After World War I, the . h c r i c a n dye industry, encouraged by
L. H. Flett, National Aniline Division, New York, S . Y.
*
tariff protection, undertook the problem of entrenching itself with modern processes and modern equipment; but it was some years before it was in a position to proceed with the development of needed new dyes. However, as World War I1 approached, the research laboratories of Germany were put t o work on problems related t o the impending war, and for the first time the American industry assumed scientific leadership. In that critical period, advances in the dyestuff industry were for practical purposes limited t o the United States and England. As part of our well integrated dye industry today, we have in addition to colors for every purpose, many textile aids and finishing agents. One of these, the synthetic detergent, has become the basis of a great new industry producing more than a billion pounds annually. Bn interesting new process for printing with resin-bonded pigment colors was developed in 1937. This process made it possible for the first time t o produce brilliant fast pigment prints which will withstand repeated washing and dry cleaning. Because of the ease of application and other advantages of resinbonded pigment colors, this new process has proved effective for the printing and dyeing of a wide variety of cotton, rayon, and other fabrics. The AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETYrecognized the importance of the dyestuff industry by including a section on dyestuffs when Chemical Abstracts was organized in 1907. In 1918, a t the instigation of R. Norris Shreve and with the assistance of the Division of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, the first Symposium on Dyestuffs was held, which was followed in 1919 by the formation of the Dye Section. This became the Dye Division in 1920. Its short but fruitful existence came a t a very critical period for the American dyestuff industry.
Chemist holds a dyed sample of cotton jiber, which i s now ready for rinsing and drying
H. G. TURLEY
I
T CAN be said that the ancient leather industry progressed
purely as a craft during the Dark Ages, the Middle Ages, and, indeed, up to the time of the industrial revolution. During the latter period, although there was an awakening of the spirit of inquiry, progress was still, as a craft, taking unto itself new products and adopting crude machinery t o replace the former tedious hand work. It will be convenient t o discuss the progress of this industry in three periods, each a generation-namely, 1875 t o 1900, 1900 t o 1925, and 1925 t o 1950.
From vacuum d r u m dryer comes experimental batch of powdered tanning extract obtained f r o m scrub oak bark
18154900
I n the first volume of the Journal of the American Chemical Society is a report on the progress of analytical chemistry. Details concerning the Lowenthal method for estimating tans are given. This is significant, because for the next 25 years leather chemistry was mostly concerned with the analysis of materials In this same first volume of the Journal is described a German patent for the manufacture of artificial leather. Clearly, the work on leather substitutes goes hand in hand with the continuing study of the chemistry of leather. Today tanners are much concerned about the inroads being made by synthetic materials as substitutes for leather. The replacement of sole leather by rubber and rubberlike products is a sore point fresh in our memory. However, let us remember that substitutes for leather have been produced for centuries. Consider life in the Middle Ages, when leather was used so much for the every day needs now filled by cotton or rubber. I n the last century, very few original papers were contributed on leather. It was still very much a secret craft. I n the Journal in 1880, a typical process is described for a tanning compound con-
I n leather making, hides are soaked in solution of lime and olher chemicals to remove hair and epidermis
H. G. Turley, Rohm & Haas Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
305
