Insecticides of Plant Origin - ACS Publications - American Chemical

Chapter 9

Downloaded by UNIV OF ARIZONA on January 14, 2013 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: February 23, 1989 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1989-0387.ch009

Insecticides from Neem R. C. Saxena Entomology Department, International Rice Research Institute, P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines

Derivatives of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) have traditionally been used by farmers in Asia and Africa to ward off insect pests of household, agricultural, and medical importance. Unlike ordinary insecticides based on single active ingredients, neem derivatives comprise a complex array of novel compounds which have diverse behavioral and physiological effects on insects. Repellency, feeding and oviposition deterrence, growth and reproduction inhibition, and other effects have been attributed to neem compounds azadirachtin, salannin, meliantriol, etc. that occur mainly in the seed. However, the complexity of chemical structure of these compounds precludes their synthesis on a practical scale. Therefore, the use of simple formulations of neem derivatives such as leaf or kernel powder or extracts needs to be popularized. Their being safe to nontarget organisms, including humans, make them ideal insecticides. Several azadirachtinrich formulations have already been commercialized for use on nonfood and food crops. Insecticides a r e needed t o c o n t r o l at least half of the insect problems a f f e c t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e and p u b l i c health (J_) . C r o p l o s s e s would s o a r and f o o d p r i c e s will escalate i f i n s e c t i c i d e s w e r e t o b e b a n n e d (.2). C r o p l o s s e s w o u l d be o f e v e n h i g h e r m a g n i t u d e i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s where a l t e r n a t i v e c r o p p r o t e c t i o n measures are still b e i n g s t r e n g t h e n e d ( _3 ) . S i n c e t h e a d v e n t o f DDT, m o s t i n s e c t i c i d e s that have been d e v e l o p e d a r e s y n t h e t i c , nonselective, and

c

0097-6156/89/0387-0110$07.50/0 1989 American Chemical Society

In Insecticides of Plant Origin; Arnason, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1989.


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toxic chemicals. A l t h o u g h they have e f f e c t i v e l y controlled some p e s t s p e c i e s , t h e i r e x t e n s i v e a n d sometimes i n d i s c r i m i n a t e use has l e d t o s e r i o u s social and environmental repercussions. The p o i s o n i n g o f livestock, f i s h , w i l d l i f e , and o t h e r beneficial o r g a n i s m s has been l i n k e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d insecticide use. There has a l s o been a d i s t u r b i n g increase i n human p o i s o n i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e v e l o p i n g countries where s a f e h a n d l i n g and a p p l i c a t i o n of insecticides i s not a l w a y s f e a s i b l e due t o s e v e r a l socioeconomic factors. Pest resurgence, a s s o c i a t e d with i n s e c t i c i d a l destruction of natural e n e m i e s , and t h e w i d e s p r e a d development o f i n s e c t i c i d e r e s i s t a n c e i n p e s t s have w a r r a n t e d h i g h e r d o s e s o r more p o w e r f u l insecticides, e n d i n g i n an i n s e c t i c i d e t r e a d m i l l . That i s not only uneconomical, i t also exacerbates the problem. C l e a r l y , new i n s e c t i c i d e s w i l l h a v e t o m e e t entirely different standards. T h e y must be p e s t - s ρ e c i f i c , n o n t o x i c t o humans and b e n e f i c i a l organisms, b i o d e g r a d a b l e , l e s s prone t o i n s e c t r e s i s t a n c e and r e s u r g e n c e , and l e s s expensive. I n t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s , i n t e r e s t h a s i n c r e a s e d i n the p o t e n t i a l and p o s s i b l e u s e o f new bioactive p r o d u c t s and n a t u r a l i n s e c t i c i d e s , which a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o cause e c o l o g i c a l damage. These alternative insect control agents include botanical insecticides, microbial i n s e c t i c i d e s , i n s e c t m e t a b o l i c d i s r u p t o r s and i n h i b i t o r s , pheromones, and o t h e r m o d i f i e r s o f i n s e c t behavior. I n s e c t g r o w t h r e g u l a t o r s ( I G R s ) , such as juvenile h o r m o n e s ( J H ) and J H - a n a l o g s , were h-eralded as "third-generation pesticides" (4), while JH-antagonists, s u c h as p r e c o c e n e s , were c o n s i d e r e d as " f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n i n s e c t i c i d e s " (_5) . However, t h e p r a c t i c a l i t y o f p h e r o m o n e s and IGRs h a s been limited b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h i g h c o s t s and a p p a r e n t s e l e c t i v i t y o f certain species. The c o n t r o l potential of other bioactive c a n d i d a t e s , s u c h as i n s e c t n e u r o p r ο t e i n s and p e p t i d e s (6,_7) a n d a n t a g o n i s t s o f i n s e c t intracellular symbiotes (8) i s being investigated. Plants v i r t u a l l y are the r i c h e s t source of bioactive o r g a n i c c h e m i c a l s on e a r t h . Although only about 10,000 s e c o n d a r y p l a n t m e t a b o l i t e s have been c h e m i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d , t h e t o t a l number o f p l a n t c h e m i c a l s may e x c e e d 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 (j?) . They a r e a vast cornucopia of defense chemicals, comprising repellents, f e e d i n g and o v i p o s i t i o n d e t e r r e n t s , growth i n h i b i t o r s , sterilants, toxicants, etc. Many o f t h e o l d e s t a n d m o s t common i n s e c t i c i d e s , s u c h a s n i c o t i n e , pyrethrins, and r o t e n o n e , were d e r i v e d from p l a n t s . The c h e m i c a l or i n s e c t i c i d e a p p r o a c h had i t s b e g i n n i n g s i n t h e u s e of b o t a n i c a l materials. This paper reviews the potential o f neem, A z a d i r a c h t a fHcjj A. J u s s (Family M e l i a c e a e ) , as a s o u r c e o f n a t u r a l insecticides.


INSECTICIDES O F PLANT ORIGIN

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The neem t r e e o r m a r g o s a i s i n d i g e n o u s to India ( 1 0 ) , I t i s now w i d e s p r e a d i n many A s i a n a n d A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s and i s a l s o grown i n A u s t r a l i a , F i j i , Papua New G u i n e a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M a u r i t i u s , several countries in Central and S o u t h A m e r i c a , t h e C a r i b b e a n , P u e r t o R i c o , and t h e V i r g i n I s l a n d s . I t s uses have b e e n w e l l known i n I n d i a and a r e m e n t i o n e d i n t h e e a r l i e s t Sanskrit medical writings . Almost every p a r t o f t h e t r e e i s b i t t e r but t h e seed k e r n e l i s most bitter. Centuries before s y n t h e t i c i n s e c t i c i d e s became available, farmers i n India protected crops with n a t u r a l r e p e l l e n t s f o u n d i n neem f r u i t s and l e a v e s (J_.2 ) . E v e n now d r i e d n e e m l e a v e s a r e m i x e d w i t h grain in Indian households to provide protection against storage pests. Likewise, t h e u s e o f neem l e a v e s f o r p r o t e c t i n g w o o l l e n c l o t h e s f r o m i n s e c t damage i s n o t uncommon. Neem c a k e , a b u l k y r e s i d u e o f neem s e e d s a f t e r o i l e x t r a c t i o n , was a p p l i e d t o r i c e f i e l d s t o protect the crop against i n s e c t p e s t s as e a r l y as 1 9 3 2 in India (J_3)· Neem a p p l i c a t i o n r e n d e r e d t h e p a d d y b i t t e r , thus d i s c o u r a g i n g pest a t t a c k . T h e c a k e was also reported to serve as a m a n u r e and as a p r e v e n t i v e measure a g a i n s t white ants. P r a d h a n e t a l . ( _^4 ) d i s c o v e r e d the antifeedant a c t i v i t y o f neem s e e d s a g a i n s t locusts. Lavie et al. 0 _ 5 ) i d e n t i f i e d m e l i a n t r i o l as a l o c u s t p h a g o repellent f r o m neem. A y e a r l a t e r , B u t t e r w o r t h and M o r g a n (1^6) i s o l a t e d a z a d i r a c h t i n , t h e m o s t p o t e n t and chemically t h e most i m p o r t a n t a n t i f e e d a n t principal f r o m neem s e e d s . But even a f t e r such a l o n g h i s t o r y o f neem's p e s t c o n t r o l p o t e n t i a l , i t s u s e d e c l i n e d . This p a r a d o x c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r s ' predilection f o r i n s e c t i c i d e s having a distinctive t o x i c i t y as e p i t o m i z e d b y DDT a n d a w h o l e a r r a y o f broad spectrum, s y n t h e t i c i n s e c t i c i d e s . Only r e c e n t l y have t h e p o t e n t i a l s o f b e h a v i o r a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l a b e r r a t i o n s been r e c o g n i z e d . They a r e h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e i n i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management p r o g r a m s as t h e y m i n i m i z e the r i s k o f e x p o s i n g the p e s t s ' n a t u r a l enemies t o poisoned food or s t a r v a t i o n . Within the l a s t decade, n e e m h a s come u n d e r c l o s e s c r u t i n y o f s c i e n t i s t s around the w o r l d as t h e most p r o m i s i n g source of natural insecticides (J_2~2!0) . Since 1 9 8 0 , e i g h t n a t i o n a l and international conferences have been h e l d i n West Germany, I n d i a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , K e n y a , and A u s t r a l i a t o r e v i e w neem's p e s t c o n t r o l p o t e n t i a l .

The chemistry o f neem c o m p o u n d s h a s b e e i r e v i e w e d by J a c o b s o n ( 2 1 - 2 3 ) , K r a u s e t a l . (24,2,_5)> and Morgan



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InsecticidesfromNeem

( 2j>) . The a c t i v e p r i n c i p a l s or the " b i t t e r s " have been i d e n t i f i e d as l i m o n o i d s , a group of stereochemica11 y homogeneous t e t r a n o r t r i t e r p e n o i d s . The most important a c t i v e p r i n c i p a l i s a z a d i r a c h t i n , a l t h o u g h more than 25 d i f f e r e n t compounds have been i s o l a t e d i n c l u d i n g b e t a s i t o s t e r o l , f a t t y a c i d s , and flavonoids. At l e a s t 9 compounds p o s s e s s i n s e c t growth r e g u l a t i n g activity. B e s i d e s a z a d i r a c h t i n , m e l i a n t r i o l (_1_5) and salannin (27) are a l s o a c t i v e f e e d i n g d e t e r r e n t s . A new limonoid, deacety 1 - a z a d i r a c h t i n o 1 , i s o l a t e d from f r e s h f r u i t s , was as e f f e c t i v e as a z a d i r a c h t i n in assays against t h e t o b a c c o b u d w o r m H e^_io_t h i. £ X Î l £ I £ £ ! l i ( F . ) (2!_3) . Also, another antifeedant and growth i n h i b i t o r c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to a z a d i r a c h t i n (designated as vepaol) and two other apparently new compounds ( d e s i g n a t e d as isovepaol and nimibidin) h a v e b e e n i s o l a t e d f r o m neem s e e d ( 2JO . R e c e n t l y , a new limonoid insect growth i n h i b i t o r ( 7 - d e a c e t y l - 1 7 - h y d r o x y - a z a d i r a d i o n e ) has also b e e n i s o l a t e d f r o m neem (29). Meliantriol and s a l a n n i n have been o b t a i n e d in d i s c r e t e c r y s t a l l i n e f o r m and structurally defined, but t h e r e has b e e n much i n c o n s i s t e n c y about the chemical s t r u c t u r e of a z a d i r a c h t i n since t i l l recently, i t could be o b t a i n e d o n l y as a w h i t e a m o r p h o u s p o w d e r t h a t melts at 1 5 4 - 1 5 8 ° C . B r o u g h t o n et a l . ( 3 0 ) , t h r o u g h X - r a y crystallography o f a d e t i g 1oy1 a t e d ( t i g l o y 1 = 2 - m e t h y 1c r o t o n y l ) d i h y d r o d e r i v a t i v e of a z a d i r a c h t i n , have now c o n c l u s i v e l y proposed the f o l l o w i n g m o l e c u l a r structure of a z a d i r a c h t i n (Fig.l):

Fig. Neem

1.

Molecular

Products

with

structure

Insect

of

Control

The c o m p l e x i t y o f neem c o m p o u n d s synthetic production i n the near

azadirachtin

(30)

Potential precludes their future. Consequently,


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m o s t neem d e r i v a t i v e s u s e d o r e v a l u a t e d for insect c o n t r o l i n c l u d e d r i e d l e a v e s , seed, seed k e r n e l , o i l , cake, aqueous or o r g a n i c s o l v e n t e x t r a c t s of seed k e r n e l , standardized "Neemrich" e x t r a c t s , p a r t i a l l y purified fractions, azadirachtin-rich formulations, etc. The t h i c k , v i s c o u s , c r u d e neem o i l h a s a s t r o n g g a r l i c o d o r due t o the p r e s e n c e o f a l a r g e number o f sulfur moieties. India produces approximately 83,000 t o n s o f n e e m o i l a n d a b o u t 3 3 2 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f neem c a k e a n n u a l l y Ο 7.» 2 1 > 2.1)' m a j o r o u t l e t f o r neem o i l i n I n d i a i s the soap i n d u s t r y where i t i s used i n the m a n u f a c t u r e o f l o w - g r a d e s o a p s and d e t e r g e n t s . It is a l s o u s e d as a l u b r i c a n t a n d a s a p a i n t t h i n n e r . Neem c a k e i s i n g r e a t d e m a n d f o r p e s t c o n t r o l use, e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t p l a n t nematodes i n cardamom p l a n t a t i o n s i n K e r a l a , where a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3,000 m e t r i c tons o f neem c a k e i s b e i n g s o l d a n n u a l l y , m o s t l y by p e s t i c i d e d e a l e r s ( A h m e d , S., E a s t West Center, Honolulu, USA, p e r s o n a l communication, 1988.). Neem c a k e i s a l s o v a l u a b l e as a n i t r i f i c a t i o n i n h i b i t o r and i s b e i n g used f o r c o a t i n g or b l e n d i n g w i t h urea fertilizer (32). A c o m p a n y i n I n d i a i s m a r k e t i n g two neem-based formulations — R e p e l i n and W e l l g r o -- f o r s p r a y i n g i n t o b a c c o - g r o w i n g a r e a s o f A n d h r a P r a d e s h t o c h e c k damage by c u t w o r m s , o t h e r i n s e c t p e s t s , and tobacco mosaic v i r u s in tobacco n u r s e r i e s ( S u b r a m a n i a m , T. S., I.T.C., L t d . , Rajahmundry, I n d i a , personal communication, 1987.) Use of R e p e l i n i s a l s o becoming popular in cotton-growing r e g i o n s i n A n d h r a P r a d e s h (Ahmed, S., E a s t West C e n t e r , H o n o l u l u , USA, personal communi c a t i o n , 1 9 8 8 ) , w h e r e c o t t o n damage by t h e cotton b o l l w o r m H ^ J ^ c r t h j ^ £ £ ™ Ϊ £ £ £ £ H t i b n e r was estimated at U S $ 4 0 m i l l i o n ( J a y a r a j , S., T a m i l Nadu A g r i c u l t u r a l U n i v e r s i t y , Coimbatore, India, personal communication, 1 9 8 8 ) , and w h e r e r e p e a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s of s y n t h e t i c p y r e t h r o i d s l e d to the r e s u r g e n c e of w h i t e f l i e s . A n o t h e r c o m p a n y i s m a r k e t i n g two neem o i l - b a s e d formulations — N i m b o s o l and B i o s o l — f o r the c o n t r o l o f w h i t e f l i e s and l e p i d o p t e r o u s p e s t s ( K a t h e r , Μ. Α., Α . V. T h o m a s & C o . , L t d . , Madras, I n d i a , personal c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 1988.) R e g i s t r a t i o n has a l s o been granted i n t h e USA f o r t h e u s e o f an a z a d i r a c h t i n - r i c h f o r m u l a t i o n M a r g o s a n - 0 f o r u s e on n o n f o o d c r o p s and o r n a m e n t a l s O^.) · Use on f o o d c r o p s may a l s o be allowed s h o r t l y a s much d a t a on t h e s a f e t y o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s t o man and b e n e f i c i a l o r g a n i s m s h a v e b e e n generated. An I n d i a n c o m p a n y h a s come up w i t h an a z a d i r a c h t i n - r i c h g r a n u l a r f o r m u l a t i o n Neemark (Khandal, V. S., W e s t C o a s t H e r b o c h e m , B o m b a y , I n d i a , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 1988.) Neemark i s recommended f o r use ( a t a r a t e o f 18.75 k g / h a ) on c o t t o n , p a d d y ,


T

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tobacco, groundnut, sugarcane, c h i l i , eggplant, other common v e g e t a b l e s , h o r t i c u l t u r a l crops, l e g u m e s , and food grains. Researchers at the National Chemical Laboratory i n I n d i a h a v e a d v o c a t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d u s e o f neem extracts enriched i n p a r t i c u l a t e p r i n c i p a l s or p r o p e r t i e s as o p p o s e d t o s i n g l e , a c t i v e i n g r e d i e n t f o r i n s e c t c o n t r o l ( 3 ^ ) . T h e s e e x t r a c t s c a n be p r o d u c e d on a cottage i n d u s t r y l e v e l o r by s m a l l - s c a l e extraction p l a n t s at the v i l l a g e l e v e l . A standardized extract "Neemrich I " has been p r o d u c e d , p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t o f i t s k i n d t o be r e g i s t e r e d f o r u s e . The e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s r e q u i r e s o n l y a few s t e p s . Two a d d i t i o n a l e x t r a c t s " N e e m r i c h I I " and " N e e m r i c h I I I " a r e a l s o being developed. Contrary to the conventional practice of p r o v i d i n g a p r e c i s e chemical d e s c r i p t i o n o f the a c t i v e i n g r e d i e n t , t h e Neemrich e x t r a c t s would have t o be j u d g e d w i t h r e s p e c t to their b i o l o g i c a l activity. T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s a c o m p l e t e r e v i s i o n and r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f r e g i s t r a t i o n c o n c e p t s and p o l i c i e s . Although it i s possible to describe such m i x t u r e s chemically, t h e c o s t w i l l be p r o h i b i t i v e . Recently, a s i m p l e p r o c e d u r e has been d e v e l o p e d at the I n t e r n a t i o n a l R i c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e t o e x t r a c t " b i t t e r s " (limonoids) f r o m neem s e e d k e r n e l a s a c r y s t a l l i n e b r o w n i s h p o w d e r (3^6)· The powder, u n l i k e neem o i l , i s w a t e r s o l u b l e , r e l a t i v e l y p h o t o s t a b l e , and nonphyt οtoxic. Range

οf

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Affected

I n s p i t e o f n e e m ' s h i g h s e l e c t i v i t y , neem d e r i v a t i v e s a f f e c t a wide range o f i n s e c t p e s t s . J a c o b s o n ( 22 ) listed 123 i n s e c t s p e c i e s b e l o n g i n g to orders Coleoptera, Dipt era, Heteroptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, L e p i d o p t e r a , and O r t h o p t e r a , in addition t o 3 m i t e and 5 nematode s p e c i e s . Since t h e n , neem d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o a f f e c t 75 a d d i t i o n a l insect species belonging to d i f f e r e n t orders, and an os t r a c o d (Table I ) .

2.Â£i£!&iL££i_ËÎiL££££._ £ £ ί Ι _ ! ί £ Ε £ £ _ £ ί _ Δ £ £ ΐ : £ £ _ £ ί _ ί ί £ £ Ξ Neem d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e d i v e r s e b e h a v i o r a l and physio l o g i c a l e f f e c t s on i n s e c t s r a n g i n g from r e p e l l e n c y t o feeding deterrence, growth d i s r u p t i o n , sterilizing e f f e c t s , mating d i s r u p t i o n , o v i p o s i t i o n i n h i b i t i o n , etc. A t t i m e s , e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e p r e c i s e mode o f a c t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p l e x a r r a y and concerted o r s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s o f neem c o m p o u n d s present i n the leaves, bark, seed, o i l , cake, or extracts. However, the e f f e c t s have been categorized for better understanding.


INSECTICIDES O F P L A N T ORIGIN

116 Table

I.

A d d i t i o n a l species of arthropods affected neem d e r i v a t i v e s as c i t e d in selected

by

a

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re rerence s Scientific

Common

name

COLEOPTERA Caliosobruchus arraJ_L£ ( F a b . ) £ΐ£ΐ£2ΐ.?_££ a r m i g e a 01 i ν i e r Epit rix fuscula Crotch Madura s i a obscu r e H a Jacob y S£E£££££l.Ë£]l£a Χΐ^Α™ t io c t o p u n c t a t a (Fab.) MyJ_J_oç_e r u s s ρ . 9.£iLîl£££ k £ £ £ £ £.?_£££ W e i s e ^£h£m£_t£zâ c a r d i a e Barber


r

DIPTERA Agdes

togoi

(Theobald)

5 . £ l U £ Î I £ £ £ v i e i n a R.-D. C u l e x ££l££££_f££££atus Say D a c u ^ £uc_u£bj _ta_£ C o q u i l l e t M e l a n a g r o m y z a ob t u s a ( M a i l . ) M u ^ c a 2£Ξ1Ε.ϋ1 i c a L . 0 £ h .iomja £ h a £ e o ^ _i ( T r y ο η ) Of s e p r i a o r ^ z a e (Wood-Ma s o n ) ί Ϊ ί £ Ι Ξ Ϊ £ LÈ.&.LRÊ. ( M e i g e n ) Phormia terraenovae R.-D. 1

name

Reference

pulse beetle rice hispa eggplant flea beetle galerucid beetle

Y]_ 22 22. 40

coccinellid beetle cotton grey weevil foliar beetle beetle

4J_ 22 42: 42

mosquito blue blowfly southern house mosquito me 1 on f l y bean pod f l y house f l y bean f l y g a l l midge black blowfly blowfy

44 42 44 42 47 42 42 22 21 22

HETEROPTERA s

Δ£££££ΐ£££ΐ.?_ *1*b £ £ h u £ η a_ ( K i r k . ) C alç>£0 r £ £ a n g u £ £ a t u s L e t h , F

t £ £ Î . £ £ £ l i i £ ££££££.!.££ · 2£££l.£££Îl££. - £££Ι.£ΐ.£Ϊ.£ ^ · a

H0M0PTERA (Distant) Amra s c a d e v a s t a n s Aj>h££ £Î _t£J £oJ_£ v a n d e r G o o t A £ h £ £ gos sγρii Glover B em i s i a t a b a c i ( G e n n a d i u s ) D i a p h o r i n a c i t r i Kuway L

1

1.Ξ£££££Ê. !££££.Êllf. ( J a c . ) E m £ ο £ £ £ £ Jjr b £ £ a d e B e r g . ΐ£££2ΐ£ΐ1.§_ Ï.Ë.Ç.LfJLlf. ( J a c . ) L £ £ £ £ h £ £ £ £ Χ £ £ Π 1 £ ( K a 11 . ) îl£l££££Îl2f. £ £ £ £ ] ! £ £ £ ( Z e h η t . ) Myzu| ££££££££ (Sulzer) Ε 2 £ £ £ ΐ £ £ £ £]ΐ£Ι!ΐ 3Π£Ϊ2ΐΐ. ( F i t c h ) Rh C£a_J_o^££h um £ £ m £ h £ £ £ £ ( L . ) Τ ο χ ο £ £ £ £ a a u r a n t i i (Β ο y e r ) HYMENOPTERA A £ h aj_i.a J_u£enj5

££oxima

(Klug)

East A f r i c a n c o f f e e bug sorghum e a r h e a d bug r i c e bug Palawan b l a c k bug

cotton leafhopper citrus aphid cotton aphid sweetpotato w h i t e f l y citrus psyllid cot ton jas s i d cotton jassid eggplant leafhopper mus t a r d a p h i d sugarcane aphid green peach aphid corn leaf aphid wat e r l i l y a p h i d black citrus aphid

mustard

s aw f l y


22 2S 22 2ÎL

22 22 21 22 22 60 2Z 60 21 62 22 62 64 59

65

9. SAXENA

117

InsecticidesfromNeem Table

Scientific

I . Continued

name

Common

£ £ £ £ £ £ £H£.lil£ ( L e p e l e t i e r ) F o r m i c a £θl_y£_t£na_ F o e r s t e r

name

Reference

birch leafminer wood a n t

66 67_

LEPIDOPTERA Achaea

Janata

L.

castor

Am£££_ta

moorei

Butler

â££Iuii

££l_e_nar_i£

s em i I ο ο p e r

redhairy

(Schiff.)

giant

C h i 1 ο ££j__t£l_J_u_f. ( S w i n h o e )

caterpillar

looper

spotted

stem

22 borer

n


22 69_

£ £ I £ I I £ £££Î!.£l£ -Â££ ( S t a i n . ) r i c e moth C r o c i d o l o m i a hi £ £ £ a l £ £ Z e l . c a b b a g e h e a d caterpillar E a r l a g _f a b ia_ S t ο 1 1 spotted b o 1 1 wo rm

28 21 22 73

F

2 £ £ Ϊ 1 Σ Χ £ £ £ £ £££j.££ ( · ) blue - b u t t e r f l y JA S £ U L £ £ ] I A . ! L £Iîui^£I£ H u b n e r cotton bollworm 22 2£ll£i£ £ £ 2 £ ϋ £ ( «) c a b b a g e web worm 60 Ma 1 i a r p h a s é p a r â t e l 1 a R a g . white borer 22 Maruca testulalis (Geyer) pod b o r e r 77 O ^ r ^ n i - a ΐΗΣΙ1£££ΐίϋ ( G u e n é e ) A s i a t i c corn borer 77 Os t r i n i a £ £ 2 i l £ i i f L ( H u b n e r ) European corn borer 22 P h t h o r i m a e a o p e r c u l e l 1 a ( Z e l l . ) p o t a t o t u b e r moth 22 £]ΐΧ£ΐ££_Ξ£ΐ£Ε£££££ Aiη a leaf roller 60 Phy1locnis tis c i t r e l l a Stain, citrus leafminer 22 P ie r i s b r a s s i c a e ( L . ) cabbage b u t t e r f l y 80 P ie r i s rapae (L.) imported cabbageworm 8J_ Sc i r p o p h a g a incertulas (Wlk.) y e l l o w stem b o r e r 50 2 £ £ £ 2 l £ £ l £ £ ££££££!££ tobacco stem b o r e r 6_Q 2£l£££ 2££llÎ£ u 11 . noctuid 60 2 £ £ £ E l £ £ £ ΐ £ Ξ ΐ £ £ ΐ £ Hmps. stem b o r e r 6ÏÏ â£££Iui£ £ £ £ £ JLLi£l2££ ( L e f . ) stem b o r e r jTÔ 2£U£££î££ £ 2 U £ £ £ (Wlk.) jute hairy c a t e r p i l l a r J74 2£££L££l£££ ££Î2££Î£ (Cram.) s o u t h e r n armyworm 22 Spodoptera maurit i a acronynctoides (Boisd.) r i c e armyworm 21 Syllepte derogata (F.) okra l e a f r o l l e r 83 F

M

a

v

r

B

ORTHOPTERA Βj_a£_ta o £ £ e n £ a l 2 £ L . 2 l £ £ l £ l l £ get;manica ( L . ) Byr s o t r i a f u m i g a t a G.-M.

oriental cockroach German c o c k r o a c h cockroach

2££E£ÎL£l££2l££ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ (Sen. ) cockroach Z.££.l£l£££i.£ £ ! £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ ( L . ) American cockroach 2 £ £ £ l l £ l £ £ ^ Î £ £ l £ £ (*"·) brownbanded c o c k r o a c h ?.££££££££ v a r i e g a t u s L . variegated grasshopper

84 84 84 84 84 84 82

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(Class

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a

21ΐ££!Πΐ£

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rice

thrips

22

Crustacea)

ΐ£££££££Σ£

S i n c e Jacobson (2 2) . on a n y g i v e n s p e c i e s , brevity.

N ea

e

1

ostracod

22

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118

R ej> e j_ le n t a n d A n t i f e e d a n t E f f e c t s . P r a d h a n e t a l . ( _l 4 ) f i r s t demonstrated t h a t a 0.001% aqueous s u s p e n s i o n o f c r u s h e d n e e m k e r n e l s p r a y e d on c a b b a g e p l a n t totally stopped f e e d i n g by t h e d e s e r t l o c u s t Sçh£££££££££ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ F o r s k . on t r e a t e d f o l i a g e . Neem treatment a l s o d e t e r r e d t h e m i g r a t o r y l o c u s t L ^ c u s t a Ι5££££ί_££.ΐ..§_ ( L . ) b u t a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 0.01% suspension. Crops s p r a y e d w i t h a 0.1% neem s e e d s u s p e n s i o n a t 300-600 l i t e r s / h a e s c a p e d d a m a g e f r o m an i n v a s i o n o f a l o c u s t swarm i n D e l h i i n 1962; unsprayed c r o p s were devastated. K e t k a r ( L 7 ) l i s t e d 95 p u b l i c a t i o n s on i n s e c t r e p e l l e n t and a n t i f e e d a n t e f f e c t s o f neem derivatives. L a t e r s t u d i e s on a d d i t i o n a l p e s t s p e c i e s h a v e c o n f i r m e d t h e f e e d i n g i n h i b i t i o n c a u s e d by neem d e r i v a t i v e s (2 2). H o w e v e r , i n many o f t h e s e studies, r e p e l l e n c y was not c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from f e e d i n g deterrence. A c c o r d i n g t o D e t h i e r e t a l . (8 8), the term " r e p e l l e n t " s h o u l d be u s e d o n l y when t h e r e i s an o r i e n t e d l o c o m o t i o n away f r o m t h e s o u r c e o f s t i m u l u s . T h e r e p e l l e n t a n d a n t i f e e d a n t e f f e c t s o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s on r i c e i n s e c t p e s t s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d indepth. R i c e p l a n t s s p r a y e d w i t h neem o i l u s i n g an u l t r a - l o w volume (ULV) s p r a y a p p l i c a t o r were u n a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e b r o w n p l a n t h o p p e r ΝiJ_££££Y_£_tat. i H S U l i ( S t â l ) , the whitebacked p l a n t h o p p e r 2£S.£Î.£.1J.£ j u r e i f e r a ( H o r v a t h ) , t h e l e a f f o l d e r Çna£haJ. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ m£cl £££j_ £ £ (Guene'e) , t h e e a r - c u t t i n g caterpillar My t h i m n a £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ ( W l k . ) , and t h e r i c e a r m y w o r m 2 . £ £ É £ £ £ £ ££ m a u r i t i a a c r o n y n c t o i d e s ( B o i s . ) ( _3J_, 32 , V3 , 89,90). O n l y 36% o f Ν . l u g e n s f e m a l e s a l i g h t e d on p l a n t s s p r a y e d w i t h 3% neem o i l . Insect arrival d e c r e a s e d as t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o i l i n c r e a s e d . The oil r e p e l l e d Ν . l_££££_s a n d £ . ! £ £ £ £ _f £ £ £ a d u l t s e v e n without contact. L i k e w i s e , few f i r s t - i n s t a r l a r v a e o f f o l i a g e f e e d e r s s e t t l e d on l e a f c u t s t r e a t e d w i t h n e e m oil. Neem o i l r e p e l l e d t h e g r e e n leafhopper Ε££ίΐ£££££Α . X Â £ £ £ £ £ £ £ ( D i s t a n t ) to a l e s s e r d e g r e e than i t d i d t h e p l a n t h o p p e r s (_5_3) · The s e t t l i n g response of N. j_£££££ f e m a l e s on r i c e p l a n t s g r o w n i n s o i l i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h u r e a , s u l f u r - c o a t e d u r e a , o r neem c a k e - u r e a m i x t u r e d i d not d i f f e r ( )· χ

F e e d i n g b y f o l i a g e f e e d e r s a s w e l l as s u c k i n g i n s e c t s was d e t e r r e d on n e e m - t r e a t e d rice plants. In a 6 0 - m i n o b s e r v a t i o n , e v e n s t a r v e d Ν . 1_£££££ f e m a l e s a v o i d e d a l i g h t i n g on s e e d l i n g s t r e a t e d w i t h 50% o r 100% n e e m o i l f o r 15 t o 20 m i n . They were r e s t l e s s upon a l i g h t i n g a n d s p e n t m o r e t h a n 30 m i n s e a r c h i n g f o r f e e d i n g s i t e s (8jO · The feeding duration decreased by 0.93 m i n / h f o r e v e r y 1% i n c r e a s e i n o i l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , w h i l e t h e s e a r c h f o r f e e d i n g s i t e s was intensified. Food i n t a k e d e c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y on p l a n t s s p r a y e d w i t h 12% neem o i l , b u t t h e i n s e c t f e d n o r m a l l y on


9. SAXENA

119



plants sprayed with a vegetable o i l . F e e d i n g by £ . £u£c_£_f JÎ r a a n d Ν . ν _i £ £ £ £ £ £ £ was a l s o r e d u c e d on ne e m - 1 r e a t e d p l a n t s θ2>9_2)· P h l o e m f e e d i n g b y N. v i r e s c e n s , m o n i t o r e d w i t h a n e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e , on r i c e p l a n t s s p r a y e d w i t h neem o i l was s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s t h a n on a c e t o n e - t r e a t e d plants (9_3) . P h l o e m f e e d i n g was e r r a t i c on n e e m - t r e a t e d plants while, probing, s a l i v a t i o n , and x y l e m feeding increased. P h l o e m f e e d i n g a l s o d e c r e a s e d on p l a n t s k e p t i n an a r e n a p e r m e a t e d w i t h neem o i l o d o r (9^h) . G i l l & L e w i s (9J.) d e m o n s t r a t e d n e e m ' s systemic antifeedant action. Young bean p l a n t s s y s t e m i c a l l y t r e a t e d w i t h an a q u e o u s neem k e r n e l suspension, e t h a n o l i c e x t r a c t , o r p u r e a z a d i r a c h t i n a t 1000, 100, and 10 ppm, r e s p e c t i v e l y , w e r e h a r d l y d a m a g e d b y Sc h i s ο c erca a d u l t s . Systemic antifeedant a c t i o n was also evidenced b y l o w f o o d i n t a k e b y N. J_£££££ f e m a l e s on r i c e p l a n t s g r o w n i n s o i l i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h neem c a k e (9^1)· ϋ· ΧΑ£££££££ ingested l e s s from the phloem a n d m o r e f r o m t h e x y l e m o f neem c a k e - t r e a t e d plants (96)· The i n c r e a s e d x y l e m f e e d i n g p r o b a b l y served to o f f s e t d e s i c c a t i o n r e s u l t i n g from repeated probing, profuse s a l i v a t i o n , and r e s t l e s s n e s s . Contact w i t h a z a d i r a c h t i n d i s r u p t s f o o d i n t a k e and i n c r e a s e s t h e l o c o m o t o r y a c t i v i t y o f i n s e c t s (9^]_) . The a n t i f e e d a n t s may e i t h e r s t i m u l a t e t h e i n s e c t s ' s p e c i a l i z e d d e t e r r e n t r e c e p t o r s or i n t e r a c t with receptors s e n s i t i v e t o p h a g o s t i m u l a n t s (9^8) . The r e s u l t i n g d i s t o r t i o n o f n o r m a l r e c e p t o r a c t i v i t y may inhibit food intake. G r ο w_th_ Γη h i.b it_ i ο η . The growth i n h i b i t o r y e f f e c t s o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s a r e much m o r e p r o f o u n d t h a n r e p e l l e n c y or phagodeterrency. L e u s c h n e r (^2) r e p o r t e d that t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of a crude methanolic extract of n e e m l e a v e s a t 50 ug t o 4 t h - o r 5 t h - i n s t a r nymphs o f t h e E a s t A f r i c a n c o f f e e b u g An t e s t i o p s i s o r b £ £ a_J_ i. £ k££ÎL£.£££ ( K i r k . ) c a u s e d m o r p h o g e n e t i c d e f e c t s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e p r o d u c e d by n a t u r a l o r s y n t h e t i c h o r m o n a l l y active substances. T h e t r e a t m e n t o f 4 t h - i n s t a r nymphs caused abnormal wing c a s e s , s c u t e l l i , and h e m e l y t r a i n the s u c c e e d i n g instar. Crude m e t h a n o l i c e x t r a c t of neem l e a v e s o r s e e d , neem o i l , and p u r i f i e d f r a c t i o n s of seed k e r n e l i n h i b i t e d t h e growth o f t h e M e x i c a n bean b e e 11 e Ε j> jj_££h n a v a r î v e s û s M u l s a n t , t h e C o l o r a d o p o t a t o b e e t l e L££_t££ £ _t a _r££ Ε£££ΙΗ2-2:£££££ ( S a y ) , a n d t h e d i a m o n d b a c k m o t h Ρ 1u t e11 a x y l o s t e l l a ( L . ) ( 9 9 , 1 0 0 ) . R u s c o e O0J_) r e p o r t e d t h a t g r o w t h o f P. 2LXi££jL£i JL£ > c a b b a g e b u t t e r f l y P i e r i s b J_£££ i.£ £ £ ( L . ) , H. v i r e s c e n ^ , a n d o f t h e c o t t o n s t a i n e r D y££Î_£££££ £££££:£.£££ S i g n , was a f f e c t e d i f l a r v a e o r nymphs contacted a z a d i r a c h t i n - t r e a t e d s u b s t r a t e s o r f e d on treated food. P. 2 £ £ £ £ Ϊ : £ £ P P were s m a l l and t

n

e

β

u

a e


120



deformed. A neem f r a c t i o n o r a z a d i r a c h t i n c a u s e d met a m o r p h i c d e v i a t i o n s i n l a r v a e o f E . v a r _ i ν £ £ £ is^, the M e d i t e r r a n e a n f l o u r m o t h E £ h £ £ £ _ i a k u h n i^]__l_£ Z e l l . , and t h e h o n e y b e e A £ £ £ me 11 i f e r a L . , independent of feeding i n h i b i t i o n ( _10 2 , J_ 0_3 ) . Ε . y ^ r i ^ e _ s t_i £ l a r v a e f e d on n e e m - t r e a t e d bean l e a v e s became d i s c o l o r e d , d e v e l o p e d black l e g s , and c o u l d n o t p u p a t e ( 1 0 4 ) . The dark a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e l a r v a e was due to the a c c u m u l a t i o n of m e l a n i n (H)^) . L a r v a e o f t h e f a l l armyworm S p o d o p t e r a _f£U££££rà_a ( J . E . S m i t h ) , t h e c o r n e a r w o r m H£j_ioth££ £££ (Boddie), and the p i n k b o l l w o r m Pectino^hora £ £ £ £ Ζ £ Ϊ £ ΐ Α . Ε ( S a u n d e r s ) f e d on a z a d i r a c h t i n - 1 r e a t ed a r t i f i c i a l diet also, failed t o m o l t Ο 06) . The g r o w t h i n h i b i t o r y e f f e c t s o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s a r e now reported f o r numerous i n s e c t s p e c i e s . Thus nymphs o f r i c e l e a f h o p p e r s and p l a n t h o p p e r s and the r i c e bug c a g e d on neem o i l - o r neem e x t r a c t - t r e a t e d r i c e p l a n t s and lepidopterous l a r v a e f e d on treated leaves s u f f e r e d f r o m e c d y s i a l f a i l u r e s and other developmental defects ( 1 2 , 8 9 , 9 0 , UT7) . N. l u g e n s biotypes 1, 2, and 3 w e r e e q u a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o neem t r e a t m e n t (89^· ^he leafhoppers and p l a n t h o p p e r s were a l s o s e n s i t i v e to s y s t e m i c a l l y a p p l i e d a z a d i r a c h t i n or e x t r a c t s o f neem s e e d k e r n e l (22»i£2^* ^ systemic e f f e c t p e r s i s t e d f o r about 3 weeks. The systemic e f f e c t o f c r u d e o r m e t h a n o l i c neem e x t r a c t was also observed against t h e l e a f m i n e r L £ r ^ o m y Z J Î £££_f ( B u r g e s s ) by d r e n c h i n g t h e s o i l (7.8,J_09). The e f f e c t s o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s on s t o r e d grain i n s e c t s have been r e v i e w e d i n d e p t h (Saxena et a l . , In 1 ] ΐ £ _ Μ £ £ ! Π _ ΐ £ £ £ y J a c o b s o n , M., Ed.; Stat e-of-the-Art S e r i e s i n P h y t o c h e m i c a l P e s t i c i d e s , V o l . I , CRC, Boca R a t o n , i n p r e s s , ) and t h i s t o p i c n e e d s no elaboration. Neem d e r i v a t i v e s s u c h as d r i e d l e a v e s , s e e d kernel p o w d e r , c a k e , o i l , and o t h e r s , when m i x e d w i t h grains in storage, not o n l y p r o t e c t e d them f r o m damage, but a l s o c a u s e d i n h i b i t i o n o f i n s e c t g r o w t h and development and adult emergence. Z e b i t z (44) reported growth i n h i b i t o r y e f f e c t s of neem s e e d e x t r a c t s and a z a d i r a c h t i n on t h r e e s p e c i e s of mosquitoes. Continuous exposure of f i r s t i n s t a r l a r v a e to n e e m - t r e a t e d water d e l a y e d the d e v e l o p m e n t . Most l a r v a e d i e d as i n t e r m e d i a t e s during imaginai develop ment, s i m i l a r t o the e f f e c t o f t h e JH a n a l o g A l t o s i d . The g r o w t h i n h i b i t o r y e f f e c t was distinct in semi-field t r i a l s w i t h C u l e x £ £ £ £ £ £ £ ^. . T o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n or i n j e c t i o n of a z a d i r a c h t i n i n t o b l u e b l o w f l y £aJJ_££h£££ V £ £ £ £ £ ( R . - D . ) d e l a y e d p u p a t i o n , and decreased pupal w e i g h t and adult emergence. E m e r g i n g f l i e s were small a n d ma 1 f o r m e d . n

e

Azadirachtin possibly inhibits ecdysis by d i s r u p t i n g the e c d y s t e r o n e t i t r e i n i n s e c t s or by d i s t u r b i n g the n e u r o - e n d o c r i n e system, prothoracico-


9. SAXENA

t r o p i c hormone, and a l l a t o t r o p i c hormone, w h i c h c o n t r o l the t i t r e s o f m o l t i n g hormone and j u v e n i l e h o r m o n e , r e s p e c t i v e l y Ο_10) . New n e e m c o m p o u n d s , d e a c e t y l azadirachtinol ( 2 3 , 1 1 0 ) and v e p a o l (28), a l s o inhibit ec d y s i s . R a g u r a m a n e t a l . ( T_n_t __Rj c_£_R££ N e_w£J_., i n p r e s s ) reported t h a t neem d e r i v a t i v e s i m p a i r e d the develop m e n t o f N. l u g e n s nymphs b y a c t i n g a s a n t a g o n i s t s o f the y e a s t - l i k e s y m b i o n t s ( Y L S ) h a r b o r e d by t h e i n s e c t . The population o f Y L S was s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r i n i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t f e d on n e e m - t r e a t e d r i c e p l a n t s than on u n t r e a t e d plants. The d e c r e a s e i n number o f YLS i n nymphs e x p o s e d t o neem d e r i v a t i v e s was e i t h e r d u e t o t h e n e e m ' s d i r e c t a n t i b i o t i c e f f e c t on e n d o s y m b i o n t s o r to the u n f a v o r a b l e environment rendered i n the f a t b o d i e s w h i c h a r e YLS d e p o t s . I t i s known t h a t i n s e c t b r a i n a n d f a t b o d i e s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o a z a d i r a c h t i n ( 45^ ) · J


121


1

J

—î.Ï.Ë-S-L—SL£_.§.££X i. ν a i _ £ £ É _ 5 £ £ £ £ f l £ £ £ . i £ £ · Neem d e r i v a t i v e s do n o t k i l l i n s e c t s d i r e c t l y , but they eventually succumb t o b e h a v i o r a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e s and s t a r v a t i o n on t r e a t e d p l a n t s ( 8 j ) , H _ L - L 3 ) » Nevertheless, the i n s e c t s ' r e p r o d u c t i v e physiology is invariably impa i r e d . Females of E. v a r i v e s t i s (100,_M_4) a n d L . É£££mJ__i££ _£ _ ( 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 ) w e r e s t e r i l i z e d when e x p o s e d t o neem c o m p o n e n t s . Production o f eggs i n t r e a t e d females and h a t c h a b i l i t y w e r e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d . The c h o r i o n o f e g g s was p o o r l y f o r m e d l e a d i n g t o f u n g a l infection. The s t r u c t u r e o f o v a r i e s o f E . v a r i v e s t i s f e m a l e s was a l t e r e d when t h e y f e d on b e a n p l a n t s s p r a y e d w i t h 1% m e t h a n o l i c neem k e r n e l e x t r a c t O J L Z ) · Cell boundaries of t r o p h o c y t e s disappeared, the cytoplasm of the nurse c e l l s became v a c u o l i z e d , t h e n u c l e i became p y c n o t i c , and t h e n u r s e t i s s u e became s y n c y t i a l . Ovulation was r a r e , t h e o o c y t e s and t h e o v a r i e s s h r a n k , and t h e v i t e l l a r i u m and t h e o v i d u c t s were r e s o r b e d . Egg production also decreased i n leafhoppers and p l a n t h o p p e r s c a g e d on r i c e p l a n t s s p r a y e d w i t h 1 2 % neem o i l ( j>3, 8 9^ ) . The e g g - l a y i n g c a p a c i t y o f the queen o f Ζ.££ΞΙ£££ £ £ J _ X £ £ £ £ £ F o e r s t e r a n t p l u n g e d when f e d on a neem o i l - t r e a t e d d i e t ( 6 2 ) . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a z a d i r a c h t i n t o 5.Z£É£££££ i S £ £ £ i S U : ( ^. ) f e m a l e s l e d t o trophocyte d a m a g e ( J_J__8 ) . Likewise, azadirachtin a f f e c t e d o v a r i e s i n l a s t i n s t a r nymphs o f t h e m i l k w e e d b u g O n c o p e l t u s £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ ( D a l l a s ) (_1 _l£) a n d i n l o c u s t s (12 0 ) . a

a

Saxena & B a r r i o n (121,122) r e p o r t e d t h a t , compared to the c o n t r o l s , f r e q u e n c i e s o f m e i o t i c c e l l s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s i n m a l e p r o g e n i e s o f N. j_uê_n£ a n d Ν . ν Î £ e^£e._n£ c o l l e c t e d f r o m r i c e p l a n t s s p r a y e d with neem s e e d k e r n e l e x t r a c t . Few s p e r m a t o g o n i a c a r r i e d on



122

the meiotic divisions that produced primary and secondary spermatocytes, resulting in lower meiotic indices. Azadirachtin suppressed the spermiogenesis of the diapausing pupae of the cabbage armyworm Maraes^ra ίΐ£££:1Ϊ£.Ε.£ (I") * caused spermatocytes to degenerate in the testicular epithelium (]_2 3) .


anc

EJLL£££_££_Mil£.LI!.SL_L_£Y-Ϊ£££Ϊ£Ϊ£Ξ_££Ε_££££ΐΐ£—Jilii-y.—£ί._5.^££· L i t t l e is known about the effect of neem derivatives on insect mating. Fecundity of N. virescens was reduced when females were sprayed with neem oil and paired with males on untreated plants (Heyde, J . v. d.; Saxena, R. C.; Schmutterer, H . , unpublished data.) Topical application of neem oil on N. Lu££££ females at 2.5 or 5 ug/individua 1 or caging them on rice plants sprayed with >3% neem oil disrupted normal courtship signal production and mating behavior (Table II) (Saxena Table II.

Treatment

Effect of neem oil on courtship signals and mating behavior of !£££££ females (Saxena et a l . Int . _ R J L £ £ _ R £ s ^ _ N £ w s j . . , in press) 0

PRF of signal (HZ)

Duration of female call (sec)

6

Premating period (sec)

Duration of mating (sec)

Σ££Ϊ££ΐ (μgIfema1e)

1.0 2. 5 5.0 0 (control)

21. 5 21. 9 20. 3 18. 7

b b ab a

75. 9 38. 7 14. 8 84. 2

a b c a

113. 5 230. 0 314. 6 89. 8

a ab b a

66. 5 72. 8 65. 0 76. 9

a a a a

Foliar (%) 3 6 9 0 (control)

20. 8 20. 8 21 . 2 19. 1

b b b a

52. 27. 20. 82.

b be c a

91 . 2 268 . 0 219. 5 94. 8

a b ab a

64. 2 66. 7 55. 5 65. 5

a a a a

I 0 2 8

**In a column, means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 5% level by Duncan's multiple range test; averages of 8, 36, 12, and 10 replications, respectively. PRF = pulse repetition frequency of signal. et a l . , £^ Rj ££_R££__ ÎL£W£_K , in press.). At higher concentrations of neem o i l , most females did not emit signals; consequently, the males could not locate them. Although a few treated females emitted normal signals (at higher pulse repetition frequency), the duration of L

!


9. SAXENA

123



each c a l l decreased s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Unlike the c a l l s of n o r m a l m a l e s and f e m a l e s , t h e c a l l s o f t r e a t e d females were not i n tune w i t h male calls. Neem o i l d e t e r r e d egg-laying by h o m o p t e r a n s , s u c h a s Ν . J_uge__n £ ( 8> 9 ) , A m r a s c a 4£Υ_££.£ £ £ £ ( D i s t a n t ) ( _5_5 ) , and B e r a i s i a ££_b £ £ £ ( G e n n a d i u s ) (_58 ) . O v i p o s i t i o n as w e l l a s h a t c h a b i l i t y w e r e r e d u c e d on neem oil-treated substrates in several lepidopterans s u c h a s C. Ξ£ίΙΑ££ΐ2:£ (.?.£) > Μ · £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ > §.· Ξ · £ £ £ £ £ Σ £ £ £ £ Ϊ : Ε £ £ ( _3 J_, 3 2 ) , S. l i t u r a ( 1 2 4 ) , Η . a r m i g e r a ( 1 2 4 ) , a n d p o t a t o t u b e r m o t h P h t h o r i m a e a £ £ £ £ £ £ l £ U £ ( Z e l l . ) ( 3_5) . Even t h e v a p o r o f neem o i l d e t e r r e d the production of v i a b l e e g g s i n Ç o r c ^ r a £££Ϊ1£ΐ££.ΐ££ ( S t a i n . ) a n d E a r i a s l i L ^ A . S t ο 1 1 ( 7_]_, 7_3 ) . O v i p o s i t i o n b y Ν . ν ir_ e £ c en £ a n d t h e h a t c h a b i l i t y o f e g g s d e c r e a s e d on r i c e s e e d l i n g s which had b e e n s y s t e m i c a l l y t r e a t e d w i t h neem k e r n e l extract f o r 24 h ( 1 2 6 ) . 3

Methods

of

Application

Neem d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d a g a i n s t several s p e c i e s o f s t o r a g e p e s t s and c r o p p e s t s as l e a v e s , o i l , c a k e , e x t r a c t s , and e v e n as e l e c t r o d y n formulations of neem o i l . T h e y h a v e b e e n u s e d e i t h e r a l o n e o r i n selected combination with other edible o i l s , insecti c i d e s , and s y n e r g i s t i c compounds. Against crop pests, neem d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d u s i n g h i g h volume, low v o l u m e o r u l t r a - l o w v o l u m e s p r a y a p p l i c a t o r s , and as p r e s o w i n g t r e a t m e n t s , s o i l a p p l i c a t i o n s , o r s e e d l i n g root-dip treatment. A potentiation of i n s e c t i c i d a l activity against N. v i r e s c e n s was d e m o n s t r a t e d i n m i x t u r e s o f c u s t a r d a p p l e o i l a n d neem o i l (J_J^2_) , i n neem k e r n e l o r c a k e m i x e d c a r b o f u r a n ( 12^7) > * * · combined treatment with neem e x t r a c t and Bac i l l u s t h u r i n ^ i e n s i s ( B e r l i n e r ) (J_2JS). T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a neem s e e d extract increased against P. ^X Α £ £ £ £ ΐ 2 . £ l a r v a e b y t h e a d d i t i o n of a s y n e r g i s t p i p e r o n y l b u t o x i d e 0.29.) . However, t h e s y n e r g i s t d i d not s t a b i l i z e the e x t r a c t against d e g r a d a t i o n by u l t r a v i o l e t rays. D e g r a d a t i o n o f neem o i l b y s u n l i g h t was r e d u c e d b y a d d i n g 1% c a r b o n o r 2% liquid latex (31,32). a n
ο(1 £ £ £ £ £ £ J_it__u_ra F a b . eggs b e f o r e o r a f t e r p a r a s i t i z a t i o n d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e e g g p a r a s i t e Τ e _1 £ £ ο m u £ r e n i u s N i x o n (HO) . T h e m i r i d CJ y £ £ £ £ h £ £ u £ J_ i. ν i d i. £ £ η n i. £ ( R e u t e r ) a n d t h e w o l f s p i d e r L y c ο s a ££££4£ii£HILi. il - ( B ° e s b e r g e r & Strand), predators o f r i c e i n s e c t s , were not a f f e c t e d b y t o p i c a l l y a p p l i e d neem o i l a t d o s e s o f up t o 20 a d u l t a n d 5 0 j u g / a d u l t , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( 92_ ) . Ν. luge n s p o p u l a t i o n b u i l d u p was l e s s on p l a n t s s p r a y e d with a s o l u t i o n o f neem s e e d b i t t e r s t h a n on c o n t r o l p l a n t s with or without the predatory m i r i d ; pest population was l e a s t when t h e p r e d a t o r was a l s o i n t r o d u c e d on n e e m - t r e a t e d p l a n t s 0.6) · Tn f i e l d t r i a l s , neem t r e a t m e n t s d i d n o t a f f e c t m i r i d s a n d s p i d e r s p r e y i n g on r i c e i n s e c t s ( \_ 4 ]_ ) . Neem s e e d e x t r a c t s w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y t o x i c to the phytophagous mite Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisd.) but not to i t s a

a



126


p r e d a c e o u s m i t e P h y t os e i u l u s p a r s i m i l i s Athias-Henriot and t h e s p i d e r Ch££ac_£n_thûm m^J^dê^^ L . K o c h ( ^ · G r o u n d neem l e a v e s o r s e e d k e r n e l incorporated in potted s o i l c o n t a i n i n g t h e e a r t h w o r m E i ^ e j n i ^ _£.£££i..l£ S a v i g n y i n c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r o f y o u n g worms b y 2 5 % m o r e 043^ · A p u r i f i e d neem e x t r a c t up t o 100 ppm d i d n o t h a r m y o u n g g u p p i e s P o e c i l i a r e ^ i ^ u J_a__t £ ( = L £ b _i srt £ £ £££i££Ll££££ ) P e t e r s ( 4 4 ) . I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f 2 0 % neem c a k e i n s h e e p d i e t i n c r e a s e d t h e g r o w t h r a t e (J_44) . R a t s f e d w i t h a neem e x t r a c t a t a d o s e up t o 6 0 0 mg/kg body w e i g h t i n c r e a s e d body weight w i t h o u t overt t o x i c i t y (^45^) · Neem k e r n e l e x t r a c t s d i d n o t i n h i b i t s p e r m a t o g e n e s i s i n t h e r a t ( J_4 6 , J_4 _7 ) . In the standard Ames t e s t s , a z a d i r a c h t i n s h o w e d no m u t a g e n i c activity on s t r a i n s o f £ £2_ΙΗ£££!1.£ £X£]l_i ΕΗΣΪΗΙΠ ( L o e f f l e r ) C a s t e l 1 a n i - C h a l m e r s (22). N o r m a l human c e l l s i n c u l t u r e w e r e n o t a f f e c t e d b y neem e x t r a c t s a t 5 mg/ml, while tumor-originated c e l l s w e r e d e g e n e r a t e d (_14J$) · Recently, a neem o i l - b a s e d , p r e c o i t a l , i n t r a v a g i n a 1, s p e r m i c i d a l c o n t r a c e p t i v e h a s b e e n made i n I n d i a . Resistance

of Insects

t o Neem

Derivatives?

A p r e d i c t a b l e response t o i n s e c t i c i d e use i s the evolution of resistant populations of insect pests. T a y l o r (J_4£) i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n s e c t s may p o s s i b l y a d a p t to l i m o n o i d s rather quickly. H o w e v e r , V o l l i n g e r (_L50) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t two g e n e t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n s o f P. xyJ_££££l__!_£ t r e a t e d w i t h a neem s e e d e x t r a c t s h o w e d no s i g n o f r e s i s t a n c e i n f e e d i n g a n d f e c u n d i t y t e s t s up t o 35 g e n e r a t i o n s . In c o n t r a s t , deltamethrin-treated l i n e s d e v e l o p e d r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r s o f 20 i n o n e l i n e and 35 i n t h e o t h e r . T h e r e was no c r o s s r e s i s t a n c e between d e l t a m e t h r i n a n d neem s e e d k e r n e l e x t r a c t i n the d e l t a m e t h r i n - r e s i s t a n t l i n e s . The a c t i v i t y o f e s t e r a s e and m u l t i - f u n c t i o n o x i d a s e enzymes d i d n o t c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e 35 g e n e r a t i o n s .

£££££_££É_££££jE££££_£Î_^££îîzk£££É_i££££—Â£i:il££ Neem h a s h a d a l o n g h i s t o r y o f u s e p r i m a r i l y a g a i n s t h o u s e h o l d and s t o r a g e p e s t s i n t h e I n d i a n subcontinent where i t o r i g i n a t e d . The p r e s e n t review reveals that neem d e r i v a t i v e s a f f e c t n e a r l y 2 0 0 s p e c i e s o f i n s e c t s . A t t e n t i o n was e a r l i e r p a i d o n l y t o t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n t h e neem's b i t t e r n e s s and i n s e c t r e p e l 1 e n c e and phagodeterrent properties. Recently, other behavioral and p h y s i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e b e e n u n r a v e l l e d , p r o v i d i n g new o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n s e c t p e s t control. However, s u s t a i n e d and c o n c e r t e d efforts are n e e d e d t o a v a i l o f t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f neem a s a source for "insecticides." A l t h o u g h 280 l i m o n o i d s , including azadirachtin,



9. SAXENA

Insecticides from Neem

127

from M e l i a c e o u s p l a n t s have been i d e n t i f i e d θ 4 9>) , m o r e may be d i s c o v e r e d . Yet their complexity will preclude their chemical synthesis i n t h e near f u t u r e . The a l t e r n a t i v e approach o f obtaining b i o a c t i v e fractions f r o m neem s e e d i s t h e r e f o r e f e a s i b l e and e c o n o m i c a l l y viable. I n t h i s c o n t e x t , a d v a n c e s made i n e x t r a c t i n g t h e b i o a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t s f r o m neem u s i n g inexpensive solvents a r e p r o m i s i n g a n d may f a c i l i t a t e large-scale processing o f neem s e e d s d u r i n g the harvest season. The u s e o f neem b i t t e r s a n d o t h e r b i o a c t i v e f r a c t i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n neem o i l a s s u c h will ease t h e c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e soap i n d u s t r y , which a t p r e s e n t i s a major b u y e r o f neem o i l . T h e s e m i p u r i f i e d neem s e e d b i t t e r s and o t h e r n e e m - r i c h f r a c t i o n s c a n e a s i l y be standardized f o r b i o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and c a n s a t i s f y even s t r i n g e n t q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s . Being waters o l u b l e , t h e y c a n a l s o be a p p l i e d a s s y s t e m i c c o m p o u n d s , w h i c h r e n d e r s them more p h o t o s t a b l e and n o n p h y t o t o x i c , u n l i k e t h e neem o i l . T h e i r e f f i c a c y c a n f u r t h e r be e n h a n c e d w i t h a d d i t i v e s , s y n e r g i s t s , a n d antioxidants, and i m p r o v e d methods o f a p p l i c a t i o n . M o r e neem t r e e s w i l l h a v e t o be g r o w n t o meet t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r i n d u s t r i a l a n d i n s e c t i c i d a l uses. S e l e c t i o n o f s u p e r i o r e c o t y p e s w i l l be d e s i r a b l e t o increase t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f neem p r o d u c e . E m p l o y i n g t i s s u e c u l t u r e and b i o t e c h n o l o g i c a 1 methods, i t may e v e n b e p o s s i b l e t o d e v e l o p c ο 1 d - 1 ο 1 e r a n t e c o t y p e s o f neem, w h i c h i s o t h e r w i s e a t r o p i c a l tree. The u n d e r u t i l i z e d neem l o t s i n some A f r i c a n countries s u c h as S u d a n , N i g e r i a , T o g o , G h a n a , and o t h e r s c a n be t a p p e d a n d w i l l o p e n new o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment and income g e n e r a t i o n . The hardy, e v e r g r e e n t r e e c a n a l s o be p r o p a g a t e d i n d e g r a d e d s o i l s and denuded environments. U n l i k e P y r e t h r u m , once e s t a b l i s h e d , neem trees will be g o o d s o u r c e s o f r a w m a t e r i a l s f o r industrial a n d i n s e c t i c i d a l u s e e v e n f o r as l o n g as 300 years. The a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t l a r g e s c a l e u s e o f neemb a s e d i n s e t i c i d e s may l e a d t o r e s i s t a n c e among i n s e c t p e s t s has n o t been s u b s t a n t i a t e d . Unlike conventional i n s e c t i c i d e s b a s e d on a s i n g l e a c t i v e ingredient, t h e b i o a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t s i n neem c o m p r i s e a complex a r r a y o f novel c h e m i c a l s that a f f e c t not only one p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n b u t r a t h e r a c t i n c o n c e r t on a number o f b e h a v i o r a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes. Consequently, chances of insect pests developing r e s i s t a n c e t o neem m a t e r i a l s a r e remote. Neem-based i n s e c t i c i d e s c a n f u r t h e r be f o r t i f i e d against dynamic i n s e c t p e s t s by o p t i m i z i n g t h e i r use with microbials, s u c h a s Β . t h u τ*ίη £ £ £ Ξ £ > nuclear polyhedroses viruses, entomophagous pathogens, s y n t h e t i c insecticides, or plant derivatives. The current v o i d c a u s e d by n o n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f


128



selective chemicals that a f f e c t the pests but spare the n a t u r a l e n e m i e s i n i n s e c t p e s t management p r o g r a m s c a n be f i l l e d b y n e e m - b a s e d i n s e c t i c i d e s o r e v e n b y t h e u s e o f c r u d e e x t r a c t s o r d e r i v a t i v e s o f neem. The s a f e t y o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s t o p r e d a t o r s a n d p a r a s i t e s and other nontarget o r g a n i s m s , i n c l u d i n g man, i s now w e l l established. Still i t would r e q u i r e a r e v i s i o n o f the c u r r e n t p o l i c i e s o f q u a l i f y i n g i n s e c t i c i d e s b a s e d on chemical s t r u c t u r e s r a t h e r t h a n on b i o l o g i c a l activity. An e n l i g h t e n e d a t t i t u d e t o w a r d p e s t control p h i l o s o p h y w o u l d be h e l p f u l i n p r o m o t i n g n e e m - b a s e d insecticides. K i l l i n g and d e s t r u c t i o n o f p e s t s i s n o t necessary i f t h e y c a n be i n c a p a c i t a t e d o t h e r w i s e . In t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e u s e o f neem d e r i v a t i v e s o f f e r s a h a r m o n i o u s and n o n v i o l e n t a p p r o a c h t o p e s t management. A l s o , t h e neem c o m p o u n d s a b i l i t y t o i n h i b i t nitri f i c a t i o n , s h o u l d make t h e i r u s e i n c r o p h u s b a n d r y doubly attractive. To b e n e f i t f u l l y , t h e c o s t o f n e e m - b a s e d insecti c i d e s must r e m a i n w i t h i n t h e u s e r ' s r e a c h . To a c h i e v e t h i s , farmers s h o u l d be e n c o u r a g e d t o g r o w neem on t h e i r h o m e s t e a d s a n d be e d u c a t e d about i t s v a l u e s i n insect control. 1

M o s t o f t h e neem r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t a t I R R I was made p o s s i b l e through f i n a n c i a l g r a n t s from The A s i a n D e v e l o p m e n t Bank, M a n i l a , P h i l i p p i n e s , and The Directorate f o r Technical Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid, Switzerland. I t h a n k A. A b d u l K a r e e m , v i s i t i n g s c i e n t i s t a t I R R I , f o r u s e f u l comments and h e l p i n t h e preparation of this review.

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