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Nanoscale Coordination Polymers for Synergistic NO and Chemodynamic Therapy of Liver Cancer Yihui Hu, Tian Lv, Yu Ma, Junjie Xu, Yihua Zhang, Yanglong Hou, Zhangjian Huang, and Ya Ding Nano Lett., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b01093 • Publication Date (Web): 28 Mar 2019 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on March 28, 2019
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Nanoscale Coordination Polymers for Synergistic NO and Chemodynamic Therapy of Liver Cancer Yihui Hu,†,# Tian Lv,†,# Yu Ma,† Junjie Xu,‡ Yihua Zhang,† Yanglong Hou,‡ Zhangjian Huang,†,* Ya Ding†,*
†
State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis
and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Discovery for Metabolic Diseases, China
Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
‡
Beijing Key Laboratory for Magnetoeletric Materials and Devices (BKL-MEMD), Beijing
Innovation Center for Engineering Science and Advanced Technology (BIC-ESAT),
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking
University, Beijing 100871, China
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* Corresponding authors: E-mail:
[email protected], Tel&Fax: +86-25-
83271072 (Z. J. Huang), E-mail:
[email protected], Tel&Fax: +86-25-83271326 (Y.
Ding)
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ABSTRACT. Nitric oxide (NO) induces a multitude of antitumor activities, encompassing
the induction of apoptosis, sensitization to chemo-, radio-, or immune-therapy, and
inhibition of metastasis, drug resistance, angiogenesis, and hypoxia, thus attracting
much attention in the area of cancer intervention. To improve the precise targeting and
treatment efficacy of NO, a glutathione (GSH)-sensitive NO donor (1,5-bis[(L-proline-1yl)diazen-1-ium-1,2-diol-O2-yl]-2,4-dinitrobenzene, BPDB) coordinates with iron ions to form the nanoscale coordination polymer (NCP) via a simple precipitation and then
partial ion exchange process. The obtained Fe(II)-BNCP shows desirable solubility,
biocompatibility, and circulation stability. Quick NO release triggered by high concentrations of GSH in tumor cells improves the specificity of NO release in situ, thus
avoiding side effects in other tissues. Meanwhile, under high concentrations of H2O2 in tumors, Fe2+ ions in BPDB-based NCP, named Fe(II)-BNCP, exert Fenton activity to
generate hydroxyl radicals (·OH), which is the main contribution for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). In addition, ·O2- generated by the Haber-Weiss reaction of Fe2+ ions with H2O2 can quickly react with NO to produce peroxynitrite anion (ONOO-) that is more
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cytotoxic than ·O2- or NO only. This synergistic NO-CDT effect has been proved to retard the tumor growth in Heps xenograft ICR mouse models. This work not only
implements a synergistic effect of NO-CDT therapy, but also offers a simple and efficient strategy to construct a coordination polymer nanomedicine via rationally
designed prodrug molecules such as NO donors.
KEYWORDS. nanoscale coordination polymer, NO therapy, chemodynamic therapy,
synergistic therapy, liver cancer
Nitric oxide (NO), a “star” gasotransmitter, plays prominent roles in various
physiological and pathological processes, such as cardiovascular homeostasis, neurotransmission, and immune responses.1-5 In the realm of cancer biology,
accumulating evidence reveals that relatively high levels of NO act as a cytotoxic and
apoptosis-inducing agent. After reacting with oxygen molecules (O2), superoxide ions (·O2-), and transition metals, NO forms various reactive nitrogen oxygen species (RNOS), such as NO2-, N2O3, ONOO-, etc., which oxidizes DNA and induces single-
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strand breaks, leading to apoptosis of tumor cells.6-8 Meanwhile, they also regulate the
activity of various metabolic enzymes, oxidoreductases, proteases, protein kinases, and phosphoproteinases in the tumor cells via nitration and nitrosylation reactions.8,9
Particularly, the nitration of the tyrosine residue in the ABC transporter (P-gp) causes
the loss of the transport function of P-gp and reduce the efflux of the drug from tumor cells, thereby inhibiting drug resistance.10,11 Therefore, NO has also been discovered to enhance the efficacy of other treatments such as chemotherapy,12,13 photodynamic therapy (PDT),14-17 radiotherapy,18,19 and ultrasound (US) therapy.20,21
Although the rate of NO generation from its donors is readily tuned by pH,22,23 light,10,24,25 and/or temperature26 via tactful design of the donor structure,27,28 the
application of NO-based cancer therapy remains a challenge in the precise targeting
and location-controlled release of NO in tumor site. As such, polymeric nanocarriers (e.g. films, hydrogels, and nanoparticles),24,29-33 silica particles,34-36 gold nanoparticles,37-39 and CaCO3 nanoparticles40 have been employed to carry NO donors in their interior or on their surface to overcome the drawback of small molecule NO
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donor. These nanocarriers improve the circulation stability of NO donors, avoid their systematic distribution, and increase NO accumulation in tumor via the enhanced
permeability and retention (EPR) effect. However, the shortcomings of the current
nanocarriers for NO donor delivery, including (1) low donor loading efficiency, (2) poor atom economy due to inactive nanocarriers,41 (3) the complexity in the structure that
limits potential clinic utilizations, and (4) the limited degradability and release efficiency,
made the efficacy insufficient in the synergistic therapy.
In this work, to solve the problems mentioned above in a NO-associated chemodynamic therapy (CDT) system,42-44 we designed a nanoscale coordination
polymer (NCP, Figure 1), a soft material constructed from metal ion connectors and polydentate bridging ligands.45-47 Different from encapsulating NO donor in
nanocarriers, the rational designed NO donor here with bidentate organic structure acts as building blocks and conjugates with Fe ions via coordination interaction using an
extremely facile mixture method. It is worth noting that the resultant NCPs are
composed of only NO donor and Fe ions that play their own roles and synergistic effects
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BPDB was characterized by 1H NMR and MS spectra (Figures S2 and S3, Supporting
Information). Two carboxyl groups in the chemical structure of BPDB endow active sites
for the coordination with metal ions, for instance, Fe ions used here. To avoid the instability of Fe2+ ions that are easily oxidized and influence the yield in the preparation,
aqueous solutions of BPDB (20 mM, pH~3) were mixed with equal volume of FeCl3·6H2O (150 mM) for 10 min at pH ~5.4. The Fe3+-conjugated BPDB, named Fe(III)BNCP, was precipitated by pouring methanol into the mixed solution under vigorous
stirring. And then, the Fe(III)-BNCP was isolated by centrifugation, washed with
methanol/water, and ultrasonically dispersed for the further use (yield 78.4%). The
framework of BNCP would be degraded by high concentration of GSH in tumor cells (~10 mM).49 4 molecules of NO can be liberated from each BPDB molecule triggered by 2 molecules of GSH (Figure S4, Supporting Information).48 To make a meaningful
comparison, (4,6-dinitro-1,3-phenylene)diproline (DNDP, Figures S5-S7, Supporting
Information) without diazeniumdiolate (“NONO”) NO donor moiety was synthesized as a
control ligand to prepare Fe(III)-DNCP without NO release under the stimuli of GSH.
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It has proved that cancer cells produce high amounts of H2O2 due to their rapid growth and abnormal metabolism.50 In the intracellular reduction conditions in tumor cells, Fe3+ ion is expected to be reduced into Fe2+ that exerts Fenton activity to generate hydroxyl radical (·OH) and hydroxide ion (OH-) in the presence of H2O2 (Figure 1 and Figure S8, Supporting Information). The creation of ·OH is the basic mechanism of Fenton reaction for CDT.42,51,52 Moreover, based on the Haber-Weiss cycle, ·OH is further oxidized by H2O2 to produce ·O2- that quickly reacts with NO to form peroxynitrite anion (ONOO-). As a RNOS, ONOO- is more cytotoxic than ·O2- or NO only and further enhances the efficacy of NO and CDT (Figure S8, Supporting Information). To accelerate the rate of Fenton reaction and enhance the generation of ONOO-, part of Fe3+ ions in Fe(III)BNCP and Fe(III)-DNCP were replaced by an aqueous solution of FeCl2·4H2O via the ion exchange reaction.53 Fe(II)-BNCP and Fe(II)-DNCP were rinsed with water,
precipitated upon adding of methanol, and then centrifuged for 3 times and stored at 4 oC
until use (yield 63.8%). Similarly, zinc ion without Fenton activity was employed
instead of the function of iron ions in NCPs. Thus, Zn(II)-DNCP, Fe(II)-DNCP, and
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Zn(II)-BNCP (characterized in Figures S11-S14, Supporting Information) were used as
the controls of Fe(II)-BNCP.
As shown in Figures 2A and S9 (Supporting Information), both Fe(III)-BNCP and
Fe(II)-BNCP displayed many coordinated clusters and they were structurally amorphous
due to the broad X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) patterns (Figure S10, Supporting
Information). The diameters of all prepared NCPs (~ 200 nm) showed no significant
difference both in water and phosphate buffer saline (PBS, 0.01 M, pH 7.4), determined
by dynamic light scattering (DLS) method (Figure S11A, Supporting Information). These
data suggest that the amorphous NCPs were in the nanoscale that may offer EPR effect
in vivo.
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Figure 2. (A) TEM images, (B) EDS chemical mapping, showing the distribution for the elements of C, N, O, and Fe (C: red, N: orange, O: yellow and Fe: green), and (C) XPS spectra of (a) Fe(III)BNCP and (b) Fe(II)-BNCP.
The organic skeleton of NCPs was determined by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR)
spectra (Figure S12, Supporting Information). Characteristic peaks of BPDB were
shown in FT-IR spectra of Zn(II)-BNCP and Fe(II)-BNCP, including the stretching vibration of -NO2 (1350 and 1530 cm-1), -N=N- (1400 cm-1), and benzene rings (1500 and 1600 cm-1) (Figure S12A, Supporting Information). Similarly, the DNDP-based
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NCPs showed the FT-IR peaks of DNDP without the absorption of -N=N- (1400 cm-1)
due to the lack of “NONO” moiety in DNDP compared with BPDB (Figure S12B, Supporting Information). These peaks confirmed that the coordination ligands, e.g.
BPDB and DNDP, are the essential organic ingredient of NCPs and maintains its
intrinsic structure after the NCP preparation. To detect inorganic elements in NCPs,
chemical mapping of energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) were obtained on a Tecnai-
G2-F30 (FEI) transmission electron microscope at an acceleration voltage of 300 kV
(Figures 2B and S13). Besides C, N, and O elements, either Fe or Zn content is evenly
distributed in the whole structures of NCPs, demonstrating the metallic ions are also the
important constituents in the NCP skeleton. In addition, the positive zeta potentials of
NCPs (Figure S11B, Supporting Information) imply the existence of metallic ions on the
surface of coordination polymers, which has been proved by X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of Fe 2p regions for Fe(III)-BNCP and Fe(II)-BNCP (Figure
2C, a and b). From surface species concentrations of Fe summarized by XPS (Table
S1, Supporting Information), Fe content in both BNCPs is similar (~12.5%). 13.52% of Fe3+ were reduced into Fe2+ in the preparation of Fe(III)-BNCP, while the ion exchange
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process replaces another 29.70% of Fe3+, resulting in 43.22% of Fe2+ in total iron
content of Fe(II)-BNCP. Based on thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) results (Figure
S14A, Supporting Information), the composition of Fe(III)-BNCP is 66.4 % organic and
24.3 % metallic iron and Fe(II)-BNCP is 64.1 % organic and 26.6% metallic iron. Since the molar mass of BPDB and Fe are 514 g mol-1 and 56 g mol-1, respectively,
Fe4(BPDB)1(H2O)2 is the empirical formula for Fe-terminated BNCPs.
Combining TGA results with XPS data, the formulae for Fe(III)-BNCP and Fe(II)-
BNCP can be approximately deduced to be Fe(III)3.4Fe(II)0.6(BPDB)1(H2O)2 and Fe(III)2.3Fe(II)1.7(BPDB)1(H2O)2, respectively. Since 4 molecules of NO can be liberated from each BPDB molecule, the molar rate of Fe: NO in the NCPs prepared here is 1:1.54 The drug loading efficiency of Fe(II)-BNCP is calculated to be 66.4% BPDB (e.g. 15.5% NO), much higher than other nanocarriers of NO donor delivery systems.24-41
Compared with small molecule BPDB, the corresponding NCPs exhibited the
following advantages. BPDB is insoluble in neutral aqueous solution, whereas Fe- or
Zn-coordinated BPDB or DNDP were well-dispersed in water, which could facilitate
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intravenous injection. In addition, all NCPs except for Fe(II)-DNCP show good and
comparable biocompability in hemolysis assay (2 mM), the increase of GSH concentration caused the
decrease of detectable NO in solution (Figure 3A). One possible reason could be that high concentration of GSH captured NO to produce S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO)55-58 under the catalysis of metal ions, thus decreasing the conversion of NO to NO2-. In this regard, 1 mM GSH, although much lower than the reported value (ca. 10 mM),49 was used in the following in vitro NO release studies to mimic the GSH level in tumor cells.
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Figure 3. In vitro NO and free radical release from NCPs at a dose of 20 Y Q) < (A) NO release at different levels of GSH, the production of (B) .OH and (C) .O2- from Zn(II)-DNCP, Fe(III)-DNCP, Fe(II)-DNCP, Zn(II)-BNCP, Fe(III)-BNCP, and Fe(II)-BNCP, and (D) the generation of ONOO- from Zn(II)-DNCP, Fe(II)-DNCP, Zn(II)-BNCP, and Fe(II)-BNCP at H2O2 concentration of 400 M. Data presented in (A)-(D) is the mean ± SD (n=3).
At the extracellular GSH concentration (2 Y 4 58 Fe(II)-BNCP and Zn(II)-BNCP
showed very low NO release in 24 h, only 0.07-fold and 0.11-fold of the data triggered
by 1 mM GSH (Figure S17, Supporting Information). It reflected the high stability of
BPDB-based NCPs in circulation and selective NO release inside tumor cells. Different
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from the rapid NO release of free BPDB, the coordinated BPDB exhibited a sustained
NO release behavior in 24 h at the GSH concentration of 1 mM. Excitingly, the relatively
slow NO release rate didn’t affect the drug release efficiency of BPDB-based NCPs. A
very high NO release percentage comparable to free BPDB, nearly 100%, was obtained
(Figure S17, blue and red curves, Supporting Information).
In addition, the efficient generation of .OH and .O2- via Fenton reaction and HaberWeiss cycle (Figure S8, Supporting Information) was detected by the fluorescent probe
p-phthalic acid (PTA) and hydroethidine (HE), respectively. In the presence of 400 M
H2O2, almost no free radical was detected in Zn(II)-based NCP groups, F/F0 value close to 1 (Figures 3B and 3C, black and blue histograms). In contrast, the increased
fluorescence intensities at 430 nm and 600 nm in Fe-containing NCP solutions represented the production of .OH and .O2-, respectively. It is noted that the fluorescence intensities of .OH and .O2- generated from Fe-containing NCPs after Fe2+ ion exchange were much higher than those original NCPs prepared by Fe3+ ions (Figures 3B and 3C). It demonstrates a higher proportion of Fe2+ ions in NCPs could
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increase the generation of .OH and .O2- at the same endogenous H2O2 level in tumor, namely the necessity of ion exchange using ferrous ion.
Moreover, ONOO- generated from NCPs was also detected by a specific peroxynitrite probe, PONP, according to a previous report.59 The synthesis procedure, 1H NMR and
MS spectra of PONP were presented in Figures S18-S20 (Supporting Information). It is interesting that, as shown in Figure 3D, only Fe(II)-BNCP produced remarkable ONOOamong all test samples, indicating the simultaneous NO release and .O2- generation from the unique structure of Fe(II)-BNCP. It reveals the mechanism that, under the
simulated tumor microenvironments, the efficacy of NO therapy would be enhanced with the help of Fe2+.
The above results demonstrate the stability of Fe(II)-BNCP under the low GSH and/or H2O2 conditions, as well as the effective generation of NO, .OH, .O2-, and ONOO- from this NCP in simulated tumor environments. To further confirm the intracellular
generation of NO and total amount of ROS, two fluorescent probes, diaminofluorescein-
FM diacetate (DAF-FM DA) and 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA),
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were employed, respectively. Cell imaging of liver normal (L02) and liver hepatocellular
carcinoma (HepG2) cell lines with the incubation of NCPs was carried out by confocal
laser scan microscopy (CLSM, Figure S21, Supporting Information, and Figure 4). In
L02 cells, no obvious fluorescence was found for all NCPs (Figure S22, Supporting Information), while consistent results with in vitro detection of NO and free radicals
shown in Figure 3 appeared in HepG2 cells. Red fluorescence of NO and green
fluorescence of ROS were observed in BPDB- and Fe(II)-based NCPs, respectively,
and Fe(II)-BNCP showed the strongest fluorescence of both signals (Figure 4). This
study confirmed again the synergistic NO-CDT effect of Fe(II)-BNCP in the specific
microenvironment of tumor cells.
This NO-CDT effect with high selectivity we proved above led to the lowest IC50 value of Fe(II)-BNCP, 14.3 ± 0.7 g/mL, against the highly sensitive HepG2 cells (vs. IC50, Zn(II)-BNCP=20.7
± 1.4 g/mL) (Figure S22A, Supporting Information). However, there was
almost no cytotoxicity in L02 cells of all these NPCs. It demonstrated that Fe(II)-BNCP
played NO-CDT synergistic effect in tumor cells and owned high biosafety in normal
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cells. Meanwhile, we further exploited the apoptosis and necrosis of HepG2 cells
induced by NCPs. As shown in Figure S22B (Supporting Information), Fe(II)-BNCP
playing NO-CDT synergistic role had highest necrosis rate (21.0%) compared with
Zn(II)-DNCP (5.9%), Fe(II)-DNCP (6.6%), and Zn(II)-BNCP (7.1%). Thus, institute of
cancer research (ICR) mouse model bearing Heps tumors were further established for
in vivo evaluation of antitumor efficacy of Fe(II)-BNCP.
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Figure 4. CLSM images of NO release and ROS generation of Zn(II)-DNCP, Fe(II)-DNCP, Zn(II)-BNCP, and Fe(II)-BNCP in HepG2 cells. The scale bar is 20 m.
Antitumor efficacy was evaluated in ICR mice bearing Heps tumors at a dose of 20
mg BPDB or DNDP/kg. The changes of tumor volume, body weight, survival rate, and
final tumor weight of mice treated with saline, Zn(II)-DNCP, Fe(II)-DNCP, Zn(II)-BNCP,
and Fe(II)-BNCP were presented in Figure B \3< Tumor growth was significantly
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suppressed in the group treated with Fe(II)-BNCP compared to other NCPs (Figure 5A,
only 0.33- and 0.40-folds of saline and Zn(II)-DNCP, respectively) after12-day treatment. On the 12th day, the tumor weight of the Fe(II)-BNCP group was not only
significantly smaller than those of other NCP groups (Figure 5B), but the tumor has
disappeared in one Fe(II)-BNCP-treated mice (Figure 5C). The body weight of mice
treated with Fe(II)-BNCP showed no significant difference with other groups (Figure
5D). It indicated that the mice lived a high-quality life and did not have much discomfort
after the treatment of Fe(II)-BNCP. Tumor-bearing mice in the survival rate experiments
continued to receive intravenous injections in the indicated formulation at 2-day intervals
(Figure 5E). After the 12-day treatment, the survival rates of mice in the saline (37.5%),
DNDP-based NCPs (50%), and Zn(II)-BNCP (62.5%) groups were lower than the
survival rate of Fe(II)-BNCP (87.5%), demonstrating a lower toxicity of the Fe(II)-BNCP
formulations. Therefore, the changes of tumor size, body weight, and survival rate in
Heps heterotopic xenograft mice clearly demonstrate higher tumor selectivity and
biosafety of Fe(II)-BNCP than other test groups. To demonstrate this hypothesis,
histological sections were stained by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and TdT-mediated
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dUTP nick end labeling (Figure 5F) to detect the cell-killing and apoptosis degree of
tumor and other normal tissues in Heps heterotopic liver tumor mice. Fe(II)-BNCP
resulted in the largest region of necrosis and the most significant apoptosis in the tumor
tissue, while no apparent damage and apoptosis were found in the normal tissues
(Figures S23 and S24, Supporting Information). These results demonstrated that the
treatment with Fe(II)-BNCP not only effectively inhibit the growth of tumor, but also reduced systemic toxicity of NO donor in vivo.
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Figure 5. Antitumor efficacy of (a) saline, (b) Zn(II)-DNCP, (c) Fe(II)-DNCP, (d) Zn(II)-BNCP, and (e) Fe(II)-BNCP in Heps tumor xenograft ICR mouse models. The changes of (A) tumor volume, (B) tumor tissue weight, (C) tumor photos after 12 days’ treatment, (D) body weight, and (E) survival rates of the five groups of tumor-bearing mice during the 12-day treatment. Each point in panels A, B, D, and E represents the mean ± SD (n = 8). (F) Histological observation of tumor tissue sections (stained with H&E) and detection of apoptosis in tumor tissue sections (stained by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling using a TUNEL kit, Beyotime, Shanghai, China) from control and test groups 12 days post-injection. The scale bar is 50 Y)