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A NATIONAL RENEWABLE BY KEITH LEE KOZLOFF E N E R G Y STRATEGY STRATEGY ENERGY BY K E I T H LEE
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enewable energy sources now supply only 8% of U.S. energy, a n d that share w o n ' t reach 9% for nearly 20 years if current policy and market trends persist. It is in the nation's interest to spur the growth of solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, and hydro energy technologies, especially n o w that curbing greenhouse gas emissions has become a national and international priority. Besides slowing climate change, a shift toward renewables would mean less pollution and acid rain. It would also offer economic boons: besides fueling economic development forever, renewables can minimize regional energydevelopment disparities and end the b o o m - a n d - b u s t cycles associated with fossil fuel production. If renewables are so promising, w h y not simply let market forces propel them into the U.S. economy? That approach might work if government policies and market failures h a d n ' t created a bias toward fossil fuels. What's n e e d e d if the United States is to maximize renewables' environmental and economic benefits is a n a t i o n a l strategy to spur the development and use of renewable energy technologies. The private sector a n d government agencies must be involved in developing such a strategy. The private sector must lead efforts to deploy these technologies, and federal and state governments must make it possible for renewables to compete fairly in the energy marketplace. The strategy must be national because some of the benefits of renewables (e.g., job creation) accrue to s t a t e s , w h e r e a s o t h e r s (e.g., a cleaner environment) affect m u c h larger regions. A national strategy could h e l p balance the costs and benefits of 196 A Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 28, No. 4, 1994
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commercializing or deploying renewable energy technologies at different geographic scales. Several of the technologies would cost less if the federal government aggregated markets regionally or nationally. Within the context of a such a national strategy, three public policy shifts are n e e d e d to cut barriers down to size. • Energy prices and government subsidies that distort energy consumption or investment decisions must be reformed. • Decision-making processes that inappropriately bias decisions toward conventional energy sources must be reformed. • Government should promote greater investment in commercializing renewables. Let's look at one of the most essential changes that would have to be made to bring about these policy shifts: the w a y e l e c t r i c u t i l i t i e s make decisions. As the supplier of more than a third of the country's energy and the same fraction of its carbon dioxide emissions, the electric utility industry is the largest U.S. market for renewables. But unless utilities change the way they make decisions about energy investments, renewables won't have a fair shot at penetrating this market. Regulatory reform is n e e d e d to spur utilities toward better planning and acquisition processes. Because utilities and regulatory systems co-evolved over many decades, both have long experience in dealing with fossil fuels and both tend to downplay renewables, ignoring the advantages while stressing the disadvantages. Yet renewables promise many economic benefits, besides their well-known e n v i r o n m e n t a l ones. Renewables can be tapped in small increments, for instance, so utilities that deploy them can reduce the risk that they'll build too much or too little capacity. Erring in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n — b u i l d i n g generating capacity that stands idle or having to buy energy to m a k e u p a s h o r t f a l l — c a n be costly. Renewables also allow utilities to avoid the risk of fuel price increases, w h i c h regulators usually let utilities pass along to customers. Small-scale renewables can provide power close to where it's needed, a feature that saves on transmission and distribution costs. On the other hand, utilities overemphasize drawbacks, such as that w i n d and solar technologies produce power only w h e n the w i n d blows and the sun shines, a charac-
t e r i s t i c t h a t can u s u a l l y be addressed without having to resort to energy storage. Regulatory reforms should ensure that utilities fully and fairly consider renewables' attributes. Planners should consider the full range of s u p p l y - a n d d e m a n d - s i d e resources, evaluate the financial and environmental costs and risks inh e r e n t in each, a n d choose a resource portfolio that meets future needs at the lowest social cost while recognizing that the future is uncertain. Utilities that acquire resources through competitive bidding should use bidding processes that similarly weigh these characteris-
As the supplier of more than a third of the country's energy, the electric utility industry is the largest U.S. market for renewables. tics, not just the lowest near-term cost. But reforming resource planning and acquisition is not enough. Incentives must also be reshaped to encourage socially desirable outcomes. A stick-and-carrot approach c o u l d i n d u c e u t i l i t i e s to t h i n k through the risks inherent in their acquisition decisions. One "stick" regulators could wield would be to limit future passing on of fuel cost increases, putting utilities on notice that they won't be able to recoup from their customers the costs of foreseeable risks associated with acquisition decisions. Another would
be similar limits on passing along the costs of future carbon emission reductions to customers. "Carrots" might include letting utilities charge a fraction of a cent more for each kilowatt-hour they buy from producers who use renewable technologies, or guaranteeing up front that utilities will be able to recover a specified level of costs from a welldesigned demonstration project. Regulatory reforms should also encourage better decision making by customers by improving incentives for using solar water heaters, ground-source heat pumps, passive solar design, and the like. The most bang for the buck would come from integrating renewables and energy efficiency into houses and commercial buildings at the design stage, because that is much cheaper than retrofitting them later. For instance, utilities could calculate the average energy demand for heating a square foot of space and then charge customers with slim energy demands a low hook-up fee, and larger energy users a high one. Similarly, hook-up fees that reflect the true cost of line extension would induce customers in out-of-the-way places to consider on-site r e n e w a b l e p o w e r generation. Another approach is to adopt time-of-day rates, under which people whose renewable energy equipment cuts their need for power during peak demand periods would be rewarded in each month's electricity bill. It is crucial that the federal government craft a national renewables strategy that coordinates public and private efforts and targets policy tools to the barriers facing particular renewable applications. Market forces in the United States are less auspicious for renewables now than they were during the 1970s. Only with a concerted push from policy makers, u n d e r the aegis of a national strategy, can the nation ever fully harness r e n e w a b l e energy's enormous potential. - Keith Kozloff, se-
from the University of Minnesota. He is the lead author of WRI's recent book, A New Power Base: Renewable Energy Policies for the Nineties and Beyond, on which this article is based.
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ES&T BOOKS E n v i r o n m e n t a l A n a l y s i s : Techniques, Applications and Quality Assurance. D. Barcelo, Ed. Elsevier Science Publishers, P.O. Box 945, Madison Square Station, New York, NY 10160-0757. 1993. 660 pages. $265.75. Environmental Analysis deals with various analytical techniques used in analyzing mainly organic pollutants. Chapters discuss sampling, quality assurance, reference materials, and emerging techniques. Storm Water M a n a g e m e n t and Technology. U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection Agency. Noyes Data Corporation, 120 Mill Rd., Park Ridge, NJ 07656. 1993. xi + 375 pages. $48, cloth. Regulation of stormwater and the pollution it carries likely will become even more stringent w h e n the Clean Water Act is reauthorized, p e r h a p s t h i s year. Storm Water Management and Technology examines ways of meeting current and future regulations, including pollution prevention plans, activityspecific source control best managem e n t practices (BMPs), a n d sitespecific industrial stormwater BMPs. A model pollution prevention plan also is presented. Environmental TQM. Second ed. John T. Willig, Ed. McGraw-Hill, 11 W. 19th St., New York, NY 10019. 1993. vi + 340 pages. $47, cloth. A main principle of environmental TQM (total q u a l i t y m a n a g e ment), a corporate management concept, involves the change from mere compliance to strategy, that is, putting so much quality into envir o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t as to achieve worldwide competitive advantage. Environmental TQM explains the concept and principles of quality management beyond compliance, and tells how to audit and manufacture in ways that meet the requirements of TQM. Some managers believe that TQM can bring profits out of the business costs of complying with environmental regulations. Biopolymers: Making Materials Nature's Way. Office of Technology A s s e s s m e n t . S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, P.O. Box 371954, Pitts198 A
burgh, PA 15250-7954. 1993. 92 pages. $5.50, paper. Stock No. 052003-01352-5. Biopolymers can be made from naturally occurring feedstocks such as carbohydrates and proteins. They thus can be m a d e in an environm e n t a l l y friendly w a y a n d t h e n readily biodegraded after disposal. A c c o r d i n g to Biopolymers, these materials could be used as lubricants, adhesives, absorbents, soil c o n d i t i o n e r s , a n d s u b s t i t u t e s for some synthetically m a d e plastics. S o m e of t h e s e p o l y m e r s h a v e p r o v e n to be stronger t h a n steel wire. Nevertheless, this report cautions that evaluating the environmental characteristics of any material is difficult, and economic and engineering hurdles may have to be overcome before such materials can be marketed commercially. Environmental Strategies Handbook: A Guide to Effective Policies and Practices. Rao V. Kolluru, Ed. McGraw-Hill, 11 W. 19th St., New York, NY 10019. 1994. xxi + 1030 pages. $79.50, cloth. Environmental Strategies Handbook describes methods for evaluating e n v i r o n m e n t a l , h e a l t h , a n d safety risks a n d explains h o w to limit liability exposure with cost-effective approaches to compliance, prevention, and remediation. The book also explains how to communicate risks to the public, h o w a company can improve its competitive position through good environmental stewardship, and what career o p p o r t u n i t i e s exist in the environmental business. America's Water: Federal Roles and Responsibilities. Peter Rogers. T h e MIT Press, 55 H a y w a r d St., Cambridge, MA 02142. 1993. xi + 285 pages. $27.50, cloth. In America's Water, the author opens by saying, "There are serious shortcomings in the way we formulate policy concerning -water in the United States"; despite these shortcomings, "the current condition of America's water is relatively good." Will it r e m a i n good? That " w i l l depend. . . on our ability to make the technical, economic, political, a n d bureaucratic adjustments outl i n e d in t h e b o o k , " says Rogers. Chapters describe current policy,
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water resources, basic hydrology, technical fixes, financial and political imperatives, and a blueprint for water policy. Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications. Klaus Willeke and Paul A. Baron. Van Nostrand Reinhold, Mail Order D e p t , P.O. Box 668, Florence, KY 41022-0668. 1993. $99.95, cloth. Aerosols are ubiquitous and often are air contaminants. Topics in Aerosol Measurement include aerosol characteristics, data analysis, collection techniques, sampling methods and sources of artifacts, inhalation toxicology, industrial hygiene, a n d c l e a n - r o o m m e a s u r e ments. Also, the authors refer to an Aerosol Calculator Program for computers, by author Baron, that includes almost all of the equations in Aerosol Measurement. The software may be used with the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet in IBM PC or Apple Macintosh format. Software (shareware) registration costs $25. Call Paula Zandstra at (612) 490-3589 for more information about how to obtain the software. State Radon Legislation: Issues and Options. Environmental Law Instit u t e a n d National Conference of State Legislatures. National Conference of State Legislatures, 444 N. Capitol St., N.W., Washington, DC 20001. 1993. $20. State Radon Legislation presents papers that address key areas of radon policy, especially protecting homeowners and home buyers from this suspected lung carcinogen. It explains how states can alert homeowners to the dangers of household radon and promote new construction standards for reducing radon contamination. The book also gives models for radon disclosure, testing, and mitigation and ways to ensure compliance with state radon standards. Bioremediation: Field Experience. Paul E. Flathman, Douglas E. Jerger, a n d Jurgen H. Exner, Eds. Lewis Publishers, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. 1993. 544 p a g e s . $ 7 9 . 9 5 ($96 o u t s i d e United States), cloth. Bioremediation shows much promise as a cost-effective way of
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remediating contaminated soil and g r o u n d w a t e r . Bioremediation explains when and w h y bioremediation w o u l d be selected, h o w this method worked for cleanup projects such as the Exxon Valdez spill, and applicable regulations. This book e x a m i n e s t e c h n i q u e s for i n situ treatment of aquifers and soils and presents case histories.
cially in the workplace. The book lists medical tests, clinical manifestations, a n d federal a n d state requirements for surveillance. It also lists sources of exposure, discusses toxicological kinetics, and explains terms such as "threshold limit value" and "permissible exposure limi t . " An overview of OSHA standards is presented.
Proceedings of the Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Restoration Conference. Association of Ground Water Scientists and Engineers. National G r o u n d Water Association, 63 75 Riverside Dr., Dublin, OH 43017. 1993. $75 ($50 for NGWA members]. Order No. P842.
Encyclopedia of Environmental Information Sources. Sarojini Balachandran, Ed. Gale Research Inc., 835 Penobscot Bldg., Detroit, MI 48226. 1993. 1800 pages. $125.
Teaching General Chemistry A Materials Science Companion
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Topics from this 1993 conference include pollution prevention, cost control, free-phase a n d dissolved hydrocarbon contamination management, computer modeling for remediation, and techniques of remediation, i n c l u d i n g some that use natural bacteria. Materials in the Proceedings also are indexed to Ground Water On-Line, the National Ground Water Information Center's database. Organic C o m p o u n d s from Coal Utilisation. Lesley L. Sloss a n d Irene M. Smith. IEA Coal Research, Gemini House, 10-18 Putney Hill, London SW15 6AA, England. 1993. 69 pages. About $130. Organic Compounds from Coal Utilisation suggests that organic emissions from the clean and efficient use of coal " d o not pose a threat to h u m a n health. However, inefficient, uncontrolled use of coal gives r i s e to o r g a n i c e m i s s i o n s w h i c h c a n be d e t r i m e n t a l to health." This book explains h o w organic e m i s s i o n s are formed a n d summarizes the types of emissions. It a l s o c o n s i d e r s o r g a n i c c o m pounds in gaseous and aqueous discharges from coal uses such as coking, gasification, and liquefaction. Occupational Desk Reference: The Complete Medical Monitoring Index. Occupational Desk Reference, P.O. Box 12873, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-9875. 1993. About 2000 pages. $425. The Occupational Desk Reference is d e s i g n e d as a c o m p r e h e n s i v e source for medical, legal, and regulatory information on human exposure to chemicals and metals, espe-
This encyclopedia offers a starting point for research on more than 1100 issues and contains more than 34,000 citations of print, electronic, a n d live r e s o u r c e s . T h e listings cover narrow topics as well as overviews of subject areas. The emphasis is on sources published from the late 1980s through 1992. Environmental Engineering. Third ed. P. Aarne Vesilind, J. Jeffrey Peirce, and Ruth F. Weiner. Butterw o r t h - H e i n e m a n n , 80 M o n t v a l e Ave., Stoneham, MA 02180. 1994. 550 pages. $54.95, cloth. This edition of Environmental Engineering has been rewritten and edited to reflect the latest knowledge about air, water, radioactive materials, and noise pollution. It also d i s c u s s e s a b a t e m e n t t e c h niques. Chapters include risk analysis, environmental laws, air quality measurement, economic assessment, resource recovery, and water and wastewater treatment. Environmental Impact of Agricultural Practices and Agrichemicals. Yoram Eckstein and Alexander Zaporozec, Eds. Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-1994. 1994. 217 pages. $40 ($22 for WEF members). Order No. P0092PL. This book assesses the effects of modern agricultural practices, including irrigation, on water quality. It contains 20 papers on risk assessm e n t , m a n a g e m e n t practices, effects of tillage, remote sensing, and methods to curtail agricultural contamination of water. The book's papers were presented at the Second United States of America/Commonwealth of Independent States Joint Conference on Environmental Hydrology a n d Hydrogeology, organized by the American Institute of Hydrology.
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