Overcoming the Water Treatment Challenges and Barriers in Small

Chapter 12

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Overcoming the Water Treatment Challenges and Barriers in Small, Rural, and Impoverished Communities in Developing Countries Kiril D. Hristovski* The Polytechnic School, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State University, Mesa, Arizona, 85212, United States *E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: + 1 480 727 1291.

Many developing countries face unique water treatment challenges and barriers because these communities do not have a well established socio-economic, educational, and technological infrastructure, which is capable of supporting conventional water treatment solutions. It is not uncommon for many proposed and implemented water treatment solutions to fail in the developing countries, especially in small, impoverished and rural communities. This chapter examines underlying factors that contribute to water treatment challenges and barriers in developing world communities and proposes a systems approach for developing a sustainable water treatment solution in small, rural, and impoverished communities. Five different categories of challenges and barriers to water treatment solutions in developing countries are identified and examined: (1) economics driven factors; (2) knowledge based factors; (3) socio-cultural implications; (4) adequacy of supporting infrastructure; and (5) environmental specifics. A systems approach, which stems from the need to resolve these challenges, is elucidated in an attempt to minimize the failure rate of implementing inadequate water treatment solutions in small, rural, and impoverished communities of the developing world.

© 2015 American Chemical Society In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Introduction Recent climate-change model projections and reports reaffirm the already widely recognized global warming trends, which predict an increase of 2 to 4 °C by the end of this century (1–3). Although it is difficult at this stage to fully perceive the complete array of consequences that will be associated with this significant temperature increase, many of the detriments are regularly demonstrated by the never before documented extreme weather events, which increase in frequency and intensity. This temperature increase will not only cause extensive environmental changes, characterized by shifts in weather patterns, but it will also create significant socio-economic dislocations caused by reduced crop yields, water stress, decrease of food and energy production, and eco-system deterioration. The availability and access to future water resources will be the two underlying factors driving these major socio-economic and environmental dislocations caused by climate change. Small and developing countries, which typically do not have the sufficient capacity to mitigate significant and prolonged disturbances, will be especially affected by these climate change induced impacts on water resources. The availability of sufficient water quantities, which are needed for economic growth of a society, is typically the focus of concerns when considering impacts of climate change on water resources in small and developing countries (4–9). However, deterioration of water quality is frequently overlooked in the water stress equation although this factor can be as contributing as declining available water quantities. Anthropogenic pollution is often considered the primary cause for water quality impairment as illustrated in Figure 1. Population growth, technological development, and lack of environmental protection are the main contributors to this descending trend (7, 10–13). However, although small when compared to anthropogenic pollution, water quality impairments from natural processes are being promoted by the increases in temperatures and changes in weather patterns (11–13). These climate change induced effects have the potential to amplify the adversities emanating from the anthropogenic pollution sources, which will further enhance the need for adequate water treatment (7, 10, 13).

Water Treatment Challenges and Barriers in Developing Countries To greater or lesser extent, many developed countries have sufficient resources to address the water stress challenges associated with climate change. The socio-economic and technological infrastructures in these countries allow for implementation of water treatment technologies and management strategies to reduce their water and energy footprints, develop and enforce regulatory frameworks, and achieve appropriate water quality requirements to protect public health and the environment. In contrast, many developing countries face different water treatment challenges and barriers that directly stem from a number of factors that hinder the implementation of adequate and sustainable solutions. These water treatment challenges and barriers typically exhibit a different nature than the ones found in the developed countries. Especially impacted by these 246 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


challenges are the small and rural communities. Generally, these communities do not have a socio-economic, educational, and technological infrastructure capable of supporting conventional water treatment solutions, which are typically framed around centralized water treatment and distribution systems (14). Therefore, it is not uncommon for many proposed and implemented solutions to fail in the developing countries, especially in small, impoverished and rural communities.

Figure 1. Anthropogenic water pollution of river Treska in the Republic of Macedonia. (Photo courtesy of Col. Mile Aleksoski (ret.)) The key questions for understanding and overcoming challenges with water treatment in the developing countries are “Why does a solution fail in a developing country when it works perfectly well in a developed country?” and “What are the underlying factors that contribute to these predicaments?” The underlying factors that contribute to water treatment challenges and barriers could be divided into five different categories: (1) economics driven factors; (2) knowledge based factors; (3) socio-cultural implications; (4) adequacy of supporting infrastructure; and (5) environmental specifics. Understanding the nature of these underlying factors within a socio-economic and geographical context of a developing county becomes an imperative and a starting point for developing effective and sustainable water treatment solutions in developing countries. Majority of these factors are not exclusive to the small and rural communities in developing countries. Many small, impoverished, and rural communities in developed countries are also facing one or more of these water treatment challenges, which are directly linked to the same hindering factors as 247 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

the ones found in developing countries. The overwhelming number of compliant examples, however, often masks their manifestation in developed countries, so these challenges and barriers are not evident (15).


Economics as a Water Treatment Challenge Finances are often the prime culprit that is typically identified as the main reason for shortage and inaccessibility of potable water in the developing countries. Water and sanitation systems in many developing countries have chronically been underfunded because of lack of financial resources (16–18). The economies of these countries are typically not able to support comprehensive constructions of centralized water treatment and distribution systems, so the expectation is that foreign donors provide the necessary funds for construction of water treatment and similar potable water infrastructure. The problem with potable water, however, is not resolved by simply constructing a water treatment plant and supporting infrastructure with funds from foreign donors because the costs associated with operation and management of a water treatment system over its life-span frequently exceed its initial construction costs. Further, a large portion of the donated funds is not spent to cover construction and equipment costs, but rather they are misappropriated to cover other expenditures, such as “activities of logistical nature.” This misappropriation of funds is one of the main problems that ills these societies because only change trickles down to support the operation and management activities even in cases where there are budgeted funds or platforms for generating revenue though water sales and services. The Knowledge Barrier Knowledge is one of the main inhibitors of progress, and this is especially true for developing countries. Limited access to financial resources hinders the dissemination of knowledge among the general population through public education in these countries. Small and rural communities are particularly affected by this difficulty because of limited resources, limited education infrastructure, and small population density over a geographic area. This general education deficiency creates even smaller pool of potential candidates who have the predisposition to acquire technical knowledge that is necessary to operate and manage any water treatment, distribution, or sanitation systems. However, specialized technical trainings, which are frequently conducted and funded by foreign donors, do not provide sufficient systems approach knowledge, so many technicians and technical managers lack adequate understanding about operating and managing their water treatment systems. Absence of such knowledge often creates challenges that prevent, interrupt, or completely stop the use of water treatment systems. For example, implementation of a simple disinfection system could have detrimental effects on the local community if the disinfection agents (e.g. chlorine) are adequately handled or properly secured from public access. Further, specialized trainings often do not provide in depth knowledge related to more complex, strategic, and long-term water management and sanitation issues for which advanced training though a university level program is often necessary. 248 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Limited access to technology further worsens this problem because many of the local water and sanitation personnel do not have appropriate access to technology that would enable them to learn, grow as professionals, and adopt prudent and sustainable practices and policies. This problem, which emanates from limited access to knowledge, could only be resolved by sustainable investment in education and educational infrastructure. The fruits of this investment may not be visible for a couple of decades; however, any enduring efforts will inevitably result in better-skilled professionals who could address water treatment challenges and barriers while minimizing adverse implications on society and the environment. Socio-Cultural Implications Socio-cultural implications are often overlooked as barriers when water treatment solutions are implemented in developing countries (19). However, it is quite common for a proposed engineering solution to fail because these factors are not considered. A water treatment system, or any solution aimed at improving quality of life of the population, represents an integral part of the socio-economic system where it is being implemented, and as such, it should be grafted into the system to appropriately serve the community. The installation, operation, and management of a water treatment solution may affect the existing social structure because it represents a resource, which could be utilized for acquisition of power, personal, monetary, or political gain. It is imperative to understand the cultural specifics and traditions of a community to avoid any barriers that could prevent proper integration and use of a water treatment solution. Understanding these specifics necessitates understanding of intra-community relationships and successfully navigating those so potential implementation barriers are avoided. Rivalry between small, rural, and especially poor neighboring communities is not uncommon in developing countries, so it is important to have a clear understanding how the water treatment solution may impact these relationships and vice versa. Supporting Infrastructure To successfully implement, operate, and sustainably manage water treatment systems in developing countries, it is imperative to graft these systems to the existing infrastructure. For developed countries, this does not represent a problem because the necessary supporting infrastructure is present. However, many developing countries do not have adequate infrastructure to support technologically complex water treatment solutions. Figure 2 illustrates a small, rural, and impoverished community in Zimbabwe with almost inexistent water and sanitation infrastructure. The supporting infrastructure does not only encompass engineered installations, such as energy, transportation, or sanitation systems, but also encompasses two other major components: regulatory and management frameworks. These two infrastructure components are regularly overlooked, which often leads to inefficient operation or complete breakdown of an 249 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


implemented water treatment solution. The regulatory framework component needs to be founded in clearly defined laws that are supported by a strong set of regulations (20). These regulations represent the base for developing and implementing proper management platform and protocols that enable interminable operation of the water treatment solution as part of a complex socio-economic and environmental system. Unfortunately, it is common for a number of components to be missing from the infrastructure of developing countries, which in turn hinders the grafting of many water treatment solutions, resulting in frequent interruptions or ultimate failures.

Figure 2. A typical small, rural, and impoverished community in Zimbabwe without adequate water and sanitation infrastructure. (Photo courtesy of Dr. Larry W. Olson.)

Challenges Stemming from Environmental Specifics Developing and implementing water treatment solutions for any community, but in particular for small and rural communities, requires in depth understanding of the local environmental characteristics, existing environmental trends, and potential factors that may adversely impact these characteristics and trends. In many small, rural, and especially poor communities, there is very little or no information that could aid in adequate selection and implementation of a water treatment system. If any environmental descriptors happen to exist, these typically consist of isolated cases of water quality analysis, which frequently 250 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

focus on the contaminant(s) of interest. However, information about the water matrix, local available resources, or other critical factors, which may affect the feasibility of a water treatment solution, are frequently overlooked because of limited knowledge or lack of funds to conduct in-depth analyses.


Engineering Solutions to Water Treatment Challenges in Developing Countries – A Systems Approach Although often not apparent, the main cause for failure of many water treatment systems in developing countries stems from the absence of a systems approach when developing and implementing a solution. Installation of a water treatment system or a well, as frequently thought, does not solve the water problem although initially it may create an appearance of a successful accomplishment. The overwhelming number of non-engineering challenges and barriers that affect the solution have a tendency to hinder its successful long-term implementation, and frequently cause a complete failure. A systems approach to a water treatment solution in a developing country necessitates more than simple engineering solution. It is imperative to create a comprehensive platform that identifies and encompasses all challenges and barriers and addresses their interconnection and synergy. In brief, all aspects of the proposed water treatment system and its consanguinities has to be considered in a systems approach towards a sustainable solution. An example roadmap, which illustrates a systems approach to water treatment solutions in developing countries, incorporates several non-sequential stages that could be easily addressed by (1) bridging the water quality data gap and characterizing the environment; (2) understanding the local needs and capabilities; (3) developing an engineering solution; (4) developing a management platform; and (5) creating a sustainable education. Each stage necessitates inputs from a variety of disciplines and creation of multidisciplinary teams to address the challenges and barriers that may exist. Bridging the Water Quality Gaps Data generated from characterization of the local environment is necessary for selecting an adequate treatment system and consequently reducing any potential operation and management problems that may stem from its implementation. In-depth contaminant and water matrix characterizations are essential. These characterizations should not be based on incidental samples and data, but rather should encompass comprehensive data sets that provide sufficient information about the contaminant types, matrix constituents, their spatial and temporal trends, and levels. These trends have to be examined to understand how environmental conditions, such as temperature or precipitation, affect the contaminant levels and matrix composition. For example, Figure 3 illustrates how the arsenic concentration changes with temperature in a water collected from a well in a small and rural Arizona community. In this real example, the temperature caused pH increase as a result of mineral dissolution, which consequently 251 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


caused precipitation of dissolved iron and sorption of arsenate. However, the iron precipitation reduced the efficiency of this system, and created operational problems, consequently leading to malfunction of the water treatment equipment (21). In brief, understanding the environmental and water quality data and trends minimizes the probability of selecting and implementing inadequate water treatment technology, and alleviates its operation and management.

Figure 3. Linear relationship between arsenic concentration and temperature from well water collected in a small and rural community in Arizona. (created from data presented in (21))

Understanding the Local Needs and Support Capabilities It is quite common for water treatment solutions to be introduced into small and rural communities in developing countries in a capacity that exceeds the needs of the local population. For example, it is not uncommon for water treatment systems with significantly higher capacity than actually needed to be installed in small and rural communities. These systems are frequently technologically complex and cannot efficiently interface with the existing water sources or water distribution infrastructure. Consequently, this creates financial burden on the community stemming from the unnecessary operation and management costs or loses associated with the water treatment and distribution system. Further, these aggrandized systems also require extensive support infrastructure that is strongly affected not only by the local socio-economic resources, but also by cultural factors and factors associated with local traditions, technical knowledge, management practices, and regulatory framework. In many instances, regulations or mechanisms pertaining to water quality standards and their enforcement do not exist, so it becomes impossible to evaluate the effectiveness of a water treatment solution in these small and rural communities. Even if these mechanisms exist, 252 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

their implementation is frequently unachievable because of limited financial resources or absence of trained personnel. Understanding the local needs and community support capabilities often predetermines the success of implementing a water treatment solution.


Developing an Engineering Solution To sustainably graft a water treatment solution into a developing world community, only technologies that are inexpensive to construct and simple to operate should be considered for implementation. These technologies have to be energy independent and efficient because of unreliable or non-existent energy supply and infrastructure. Providing sustainable long-term support for these technologies could be achieved by creating community businesses that would manufacture these treatment systems or their components using locally available resources. This social-entrepreneurship platform would need to further be supplemented by technical training that focuses on manufacturing, operation, performance monitoring, and maintenance of these systems. Creation of such platforms, which are based on synergy between social-entrepreneurship and technical capacity building, would inevitably minimize the system failure rates because these two elements represent the major factors that contribute to collapse of system-oriented solutions in developing countries. Developing a Management Platform Absence of a management platform in support of an installed engineering water treatment system inadvertently leads to it failure. A management platform, which is the main tool for effective water governance, is necessary to enable the personnel activities and integrate the water treatment solution into the local socio-economic system (22, 23). This platform should clearly define the roles, responsibilities, limitations, and penalties associated with efficiently operating the water treatment system within regulatory compliance and service parameters. At a bare minimum, the platform should encompass three categories of activities, which represent the pillars of an effective water treatment management solution. These activities include (1) financial management; (2) operation and maintenance; and (3) water quality control and monitoring. While in developed countries, such management platforms are successfully integrated in a larger municipal management system run by professional employees, this approach may not be applicable to many small and rural communities in the developing countries because of the existing challenges and barriers. Considering that many water treatment systems in these communities represent a local resource, it is imperative to frame this management platform around local shared responsibility. The Role of Sustainable Education Although education does not have a direct impact on implementation of water treatment solutions in small, rural, and impoverished communities, its indirect influences on the health and wellbeing of a community are invaluable. 253 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Education plays a key role in minimizing risks of disease, which are often directly related to poor hygiene and sanitation. It is imperative to embed educational modules that address importance of clean water and its role in prevention of disease as part of the elementary education process in the local schools. However, education of the general public needs to also be conducted on a permanent basis to reinforce the role of clean water, sanitation, and disease. For example, it is imperative to convey the relationship between inadequate sewage infrastructure, potable water contamination, and disease, especially in extremely impoverished and rural communities in some developing countries where the illiteracy levels are high. Many NGOs are actively engaged in this type of activity; however, their effectiveness is limited because it lacks the synergy, which stems from the barriers and other elements of the system-oriented water treatment solution. The Importance of Reiteration Successful implementation of a water treatment solution in small, rural, and impoverished communities of the developing world necessitates grafting of the technology into the socio-economic matrix of a community and interfacing it well with its regulatory, management, and engineered infrastructure to optimally meet the needs of a community in developing countries. However, it should be expected for many deficiencies to be revealed during the entire development and implementation process, which necessitates reiteration of the entire process and continuous generation of new data and trends. Upon completion, each water treatment solution has to be evaluated and reexamined so deficiencies could be identified and exposed; so consequently improvements and upgrades are re-engineered and instituted. This methodology necessitates a multidisciplinary approach to address all factors that may affect a water treatment solution (24). However, one of the most important components of this reiteration process, which is frequently overlooked, is training. Instituting a permanent training and education program framed around the professional development of the personnel engaged in managing the integrated water treatment system is imperative to provide permanent solution to water problems in small, rural, and impoverished communities in developing countries.

Conclusions Engineering solutions for water treatment in developing countries represents a laborious and a complex effort that necessitates engagement of multidisciplinary teams. Over the years, many programs have been established with a primary goal to mitigate the ever-growing problem of providing safe potable water to myriad of small, rural, and impoverished communities in developing countries. Some of them, like Wello, AQUATap or PlayPump, have even been somewhat successful in short-term implementing non-conventional technologies to provide potable water for small communities (25–27). Unfortunately, the majority of them focus only on bringing and installing water treatment technologies or building new wells. They overlook the complexity of this problem and the socio cultural, environmental, and 254 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

economic implications that arise from embedding a water treatment technology into an anthropogenic system. Consequently, many of these projects fail within a short period upon their commencement, frequently creating greater problems than the ones they intended to solve.

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Overcoming the Water Treatment Challenges and Barriers in Small

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