NILS KIRSCH
UNESCO NILS KIRSCH
ANALYTICAL
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Theodros Solomon Addis Ababa University (Ethiopia)
Malin Åkerblom Uppsala University (Sweden)
Erik W. Thulstrup Roskilde University (Denmark)
I
t is widely recognized that R&D is one of the key activities that promotes development in general. The world average of the ratio of gross expenditure for R&D to gross domestic product stands at 1.4%, yet most countries in subSaharan Africa, Latin America, South and Southeast Asia, and the Arab world have ratios of 0.3% or less. This contrasts sharply with figures of 2.5% for North America and 2.3% for Japan and the newly industrialized countries (1). It is therefore not surprising that most developing countries contribute little to overall world scientific output, such as publications and patents. The developed world, with 20% of the world’s population, contributes nearly 75% of all publica-
Our purpose is to paint a picture of the conditions under which analytical chemistry research is being done in developing countries, focusing on the universities where analytical capabilities are born. In addition, we want to show that, despite numerous difficulties, analytical chemistry researchers in such countries are making great strides in overcoming obstacles through self-help schemes and research collaborations, both among themselves and with colleagues in the developed world. Last, we want to show how the assistance of donor organizations and individual scientists has promoted the growth of analytical chemistry and how, with a little coordination and focus, so much more can be done.
CHEMISTRY
in the Developing World
Despite some good programs and strategies to advance science in developing countries, more needs to be done. tions in chemistry, whereas China, Oceania, Latin America, Arab countries, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia in total contribute only ~8% (1). These values also reflect available workforce resources; many developing countries have no more than 2 people who hold a Ph.D. in chemistry per 1 million inhabitants. In spite of this dismal picture, there is reason for optimism. Some developing countries have been able to produce notable research results, placing them in the forefront in selected areas.
Start with nature Analytical chemistry research in developing countries often starts with the analysis of natural resources because it provides necessary baseline data where none exist, and it builds analytical capability for tackling urgent national issues. Most countries now conduct basic environmental monitoring activities and trace analysis. Still, many countries lack functioning laboratories for pesticide residue analysis, and others have laboratories solely for monitoring pesticides in export commodities, such as tobacco and meat.
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research, however, is classified as organic, natural product, or phytochemistry. Some developing countries have productive research groups in these areas, and they are among the leading laboratories, not only in the region, but globally. Advice from university-based analytical chemists is in high demand in many developing countries. Chemistry departments are relatively well established when it comes to physical and workforce resources, compared with most other laboratories in their localities. Many challenging problems are forwarded to analytical chemists at universities by government and nongovernment organizations. The pesticide residue analysis research at the University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) is a typical example. Tanzania exports fish from Lake Victoria to the European Union (EU), and, at one time, this was suspended because the EU required assurance that pesticide residues in the fish were below certain limits. At that time, there was no authority in Tanzania able to analyze the residues in question, so a Ph.D. student in the budding pesticide laboratory at the University of Dar es Salaam undertook this task (2). Her results were of sufficient quality that they contributed to the lifting of the EU ban on the export of Tanzanian fish. Thus, university chemistry departments often face the additional burden of providing their respective 108 A
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countries with services that would not normally fall within their domain elsewhere.
A long list of challenges The lack of adequate research capacity is a major weakness in many developing countries. The factors contributing to this problem are diverse and complex. As a group, developing countries differ greatly from their industrialized counterparts in their science and technology policies, financial capacities, and workforce resources. Conditions among developing countries can vary just as much. In this article, we concentrate on the major analytical challenges in sub-Saharan Africa. Some of these are poor technical support, difficulties in procuring spare parts, lack of research chemicals, shortage of capital equipment, insufficient access to funding sources, communication problems, insufficient access to and limited use of international scientific journals, weak national or regional research journals, few strong professional societies, low mobility of researchers, insufficient incentives for productive research, low salaries for university staff, and extensive educational obligations (“teaching load”). Using scientific equipment in a developing country is often surprisingly difficult because of infrastructure and climatic conditions, which can include power cuts, fluctuating voltage, high indoor temperature and humidity, and sand and dust. Frequent maintenance and service are needed. Although undergraduate chemistry curricula offer courses on instrumental analysis, they normally do not provide adequate hands-on training for electronic or mechanical instrumentation, and thus performing routine maintenance does not come naturally to many scientists. The overall staff profile of many departments rarely includes high-level technicians with adequate training in electronics and instrumentation. Few developing countries have local representatives of instrument companies, and it is both difficult and expensive to arrange a visit by a service person from abroad. Some initiatives have attempted to increase self-sufficiency in developing countries. One example is the Network of Users of Scientific Equipment in Eastern and Southern Africa, which organizes training workshops and is supported by traditional donors, including the International Foundation for Science (IFS), the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency/Department for Research Cooperation (Sida/SAREC), and the Dutch Foreign Ministry, as well as equipment producers. (For a listing of organizations, see the box on p 111 A.) The Soil and Plant Analytical Laboratories Network of Africa, based in Nigeria, provides similar services for those doing agricultural analyses. A donor group, including IFS and the International Science Programme (ISP), recently organized a meeting in NILS KIRSCH
The extraction, characterization, and structural elucidation of components found in plants have been among the key research areas in many developing countries. Natural products are of interest because of the need to have a firm scientific basis for much of the herbal medicine practiced in these countries and to search for lead compounds for drug development. Most of this
Cameroon to establish a similar network in west Africa. (Pro- with financial support from UNESCO, coordinates individual ceedings of the meeting may be obtained from IFS.) A prag- donations and requests from domestic and foreign universities. Many professional societies in developing countries have matic and useful initiative is the Network of Instrument Technical Personnel and User Scientists of Bangladesh organized by launched their own local journals. Some of the advantages of chemists at Dhaka University. They conduct hands-on courses having good local and regional journals are that local researchers on maintenance and use of equipment for both technicians and gain experience in communicating scientifically with the rest of scientists from public universities, government, and private lab- the world, and the peer review process encourages quality and oratories. Supported by ISP and IFS, the network also has ac- builds research capacity. In addition, research results more relcess to technicians for the repair of equipment, from pH meters evant to their country or region are more likely to be read by local researchers, business owners, and government planners and to elaborate analytical equipment. Acquiring spare parts, accessories, research chemicals, and decision makers than if they were published in an international other supplies is another serious problem. In most developing journal. However, in some developing countries, an excess of countries, one simply cannot phone suppliers and ask them to journals are devoted to a single department, which does not urgently ship your order. Often, there are no local agents who provide the same benefits as local journals and may even inadstock these items. Foreign suppliers understandably are reluc- vertently bury good research. Therefore, mergers of inefficient, tant to ship items prior to payment, especially to institutions small journals into a system of national or regional journals with which they do not regularly conduct business. Some major might be a major improvement in many countries. Such mergers suppliers provide outstanding customer service in developing took place a few decades ago with great success in Denmark, countries, whereas others turn a deaf ear as soon as the purchase Finland, Norway, and Sweden (3). Where access to the Internet and of an instrument is completed— literature databases is difficult or nonthere is no response to queries conexistent, Current Contents CD-ROMs cerning technical problems or orders Th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o sent out twice a year have been exfor additional supplies. Donors are tremely useful. All ISP grant recipients often not sufficiently aware of mainshare ideas through in physics, for example, receive this tenance problems or even the costs service. Once the researcher has found of running modern instruments. conferences is an article of interest, reprints can be Many do not provide support besent by fax or mail. IFS also provides yond the procurement of the equiplimited due to cost. similar literature services to its granment, which results in a complete tees. Many individual scientists also aswaste of the donation. Luckily, donor sist their colleagues in finding papers. organizations such as IFS (for former grantees) and the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) A new initiative is the International Network for the Availability of provide special grants for spare parts. The National Science Scientific Publications, through which developing countries can Foundation in Sri Lanka has a special fund for spare parts, which get access to international journals and databases. By making their own research publications part of this network, scientists can is open to the country’s universities and research institutes. With the recent rise in the cost of journals, many universi- broaden their influence. Much of the material is also available on ties in developing countries have been forced to cancel sub- CD-ROM or DVD, in addition to the Internet. Increasingly, imscriptions. Although progress in the use of electronic media portant journals are making all but the most recent articles availand the Internet is expanding quickly, some universities in the able on the Internet. In Latin America, several countries have poorest regions of the world are not yet connected. It is not joined an impressive online scientific library (www.SciELO.org) uncommon for university chemists to personally subscribe to where quality journals, such as the Journal of the Brazilian Chemscientific journals to keep up with current developments in ical Society, can be read without charge (www.scielo.br). The mobility of researchers in developing countries is often their area and to combat feelings of alienation, and they manage to do it on salaries that are so meager that it is hard for their very low, which is another severe problem. The opportunity to share ideas through participation in conferences and workshops colleagues in the developed world to believe. Some chemistry departments are fortunate enough to be is rather limited, mainly due to cost. However, an increasing endowed with the personal journal holdings, often spanning number of regional branches, scientific unions, and regional decades, of retired scientists in the developed world. Thanks to networks are being developed. An example is the newly formed entities such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Southern and Eastern Africa Network of Analytical Chemists, Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the American Association which has succeeded in gathering analytical chemists from 11 for the Advancement of Science, and TWAS, the costs of ship- sub-Saharan countries for its founding meeting and will hold its ping journals are covered. Similarly, ACS Project Bookshare, first conference in July 2003. M A R C H 1 , 2 0 0 3 / A N A LY T I C A L C H E M I S T R Y
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searcher at the Addis Ababa University (AAU), catalyzed the launch of quality Ethiopian research, which has been sustained for well over 20 years (4). Similarly, in the hands of good chemists, many almost forgotten analytical methods can be combined with today’s spectrophotometers and TLC setups (in lieu of delicate chromatographic equipment) and used for pesticide analysis (5, 6). The simpler and less automated an instrument, the greater the chance of keeping it functioning under difficult conditions. The lack of capital equipment in some laboratories, although a real stumbling block, is not necessarily a hindrance to committed researchers. For example, only few sub-Saharan countries have an NMR instrument. To overcome this, African scientists now send their samples to the University of Botswana as part of the Network of Analytical and Bioassay Services for Africa (NABSA). The spectra are then recorded on a Bruker 600-MHz NMR instrument. The University of Dar es Salaam, with the help of NABSA, has now installed a Bruker NMR workstation that can process the NMR spectra recorded on the instrument in Botswana. Professors and students are no longer limited to hard copies of spectra sent earlier by mail, and students can learn much more. Sharing sparse equipment is another option. Students associated with the African Network for the Chemical Analysis of Pesticides travel as inexpensively as possible to a neighboring country to gain access to a needed instrument.
trian Academic Exchange Service. DAAD fellows can apply for an equipment grant upon completing a stay in Germany to continue their research in the home country. This is a valuable endeavor that other donors should consider.
Brain drain
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Many scientists effectively use their sabbatical and research leaves by spending them in well-established laboratories in the developed world. This alleviates the common feeling of alienation and exposes them to recent developments and newer analytical equipment. The Fulbright (United States) and Humboldt (Germany) fellowships are highly competitive and used for such purposes. Other examples are the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), the British Council, and the Aus-
The gift of an instrument Most developing countries find it difficult to keep pace with the rapid advances in analytical instrumentation. Educational and research laboratories need to be regularly updated to make the skills of graduates commensurate with the demands of the current workplace. Financial limitations, however, severely restrict this task because rather substantial investments, well beyond the means of most universities, are required to purchase and upgrade instruments such as an inductively coupled plasma spectrometer or even a gas chromatograph. As with scientific periodicals, there are some organizations, such as UNESCO and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, which facilitate the donation of second-hand analytical instruments in working order. This opportunity is too rarely exploited. However, not all research needs sophisticated equipment. A small four-electrode potentiostat, constructed at the University of Southampton (United Kingdom) and given as a gift to a re110 A
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In recent years, Africa has lost about a third of its skilled professionals (an estimated 23,000 academics annually), and replacing them with expatriates from the developed world would cost ~$4 billion per year (7). African universities are, in effect, training their graduates for export to developed nations, and thus are unwittingly giving assistance to wealthier western nations (8). One of the reasons for this “brain drain” is the unreasonably low salaries paid to professionals in many developing countries. Other reasons include politics; lack of development, democratization, and human rights; and, most importantly, the search for better research opportunities. The situation is similar in developing countries in Latin America, Asia, and eastern Europe. Even research powers such as China and India experience this problem, although their opportunities for getting some of their researchers back are improving. Students have open minds and the time needed to perform tedious tasks; they also ask the questions that help produce breakthroughs, making them key players in almost any attempt to invigorate research. It is therefore another loss for developing countries that their best and brightest students often leave for graduate studies abroad. The “sandwich” training scheme is
SOME ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN SCIENCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. AAAS
American Association for the Advancement of Science
www.aaas.org
AAPAC
African Association of Pure and Applied Chemistry
www.und.ac.za/und/aapac
ACS
American Chemical Society
www.acs.org
African Network for the Chemical Analysis of Pesticides
http://chem.udsm.ac.tz/ home/chemistry/ANCAP
Association of Analytical Communities
www.aoac.org
Organization of the Islamic Conference’s Standing Committee on Scientific & Technological Cooperation
www.comstech.org.pk
German Academic Exchange Service
www.daad.de
Enhancement of Research Capacity in Developing Countries
www.um.dk
International Foundation for Science
www.ifs.se
International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications
www.inasp.org.uk
International Organization for Chemical Sciences in Development
www.iocd.org
International Programme in the Chemical Sciences, International Programme in the Physical Sciences, International Science Programme
www.isp.uu.se
L’Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
www.ird.fr
Network of Analytical and Bioassay Services for Africa
www.ub.bw/news/conf/ nabsa/index.htm
Network of Instrument Technical Personnel and User Scientists of Bangladesh
[email protected] Network of Users of Scientific Equipment in Eastern and Southern Africa
www.nusesa.org
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
www.opcw.org/html/db/ icprot_frameset.html
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Department for Research Cooperation
www.sida.se
Southern and Eastern Africa Network of Analytical Chemists
www.ub.bw/departments/ science/seanac.pdf
Soil and Plant Analytical Laboratories Network of Africa (based in Nigeria)
www.iita.org
Third World Academy of Sciences
www.twas.org
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
www.unesco.org
increasingly being adopted to reduce the loss of graduate students. ANCAP Ethiopia, in cooperation with Sida/ SAREC, has used this scheme extensiveAOAC International ly. In the sandwich scheme, a student, COMSTECH typically a young employee of AAU recruited for staff development purposes, registers for Ph.D. studies at the university. The student takes all or a majority of DAAD the required lecture and laboratory ENRECA courses there and performs the Ph.D. research project at AAU and at a collaborating university, usually in Sweden. The IFS researcher defends his or her thesis at INASP AAU in the presence of external examiners invited from established universities IOCD in developed countries, and AAU awards the degree. All the training costs are covered by grants from Sida/SAREC. IPICS, IPPS, ISP Throughout the training, researchers stay in constant contact with the laboratory in Sweden, and two co-supervisors (one from Sweden, one from Ethiopia) IRD monitor the student’s progress at both places. Research equipment, also part of NABSA the grant, is available at AAU, so the student has the necessary basic facilities to NITUB do work in his or her field of specialization before and after graduation. The student is exposed to a modern research NUSESA environment in a developed country, and capacity is built at the department in OPCW AAU at the same time. The student receives a normal salary throughout the Sida/SAREC training and is assured of employment within the university following graduation. This technique reduces the likelihood of brain drain. SEANAC The two co-supervisors choose the research area on the basis of mutual inSPALNA terest and whether the student can continue his or her study in Ethiopia after TWAS completing the Ph.D. Projects often are tied to research problems in the develUNESCO oping country. The benefits of this type of training have been quite substantial, and sandwich programs are increasingly being used by several donors (e.g., the Danish Enhancement of Research Capacity in Developing Countries program). In another attempt to reduce brain drain, the ISP at Uppsala University (Sweden) provides long-term support to research groups, typically $30,000–$40,000 per year for 10–20
years, which may be used for anything needed to do research: equipment, spare parts, travel, consumables, literature, postgraduate sandwich training, collaboration with other groups, and networks. These small but steady improvements in research conditions have been shown to keep brain drain below 10%. M A R C H 1 , 2 0 0 3 / A N A LY T I C A L C H E M I S T R Y
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Collaborative research In recent years, Ethiopia has experienced periods of severe drought and famine. During such periods, the population in some regions of the country had to depend on a drought-resistant crop known as grass pea, or Lathyrus sativus, for survival.
(a) H2C
H C
COOH
NH NH2 O O
C C OH
(b) Substrate
O2
GIOx
α-Ketoacid + NH3
H2O2
Red
Ox
HRP
Osmium hydrogel
Ox
Red
e–
H2O
Solid electrode
FIGURE 1. (a) The structure of -ODAP and (b) the reaction scheme at the L-glutamate oxidase/horseradish peroxidase/ redox hydrogel-modified electrode. (Adapted from Ref. 13.)
Unfortunately, if this is the only food consumed for extended periods, the irreversible neurological disease neurolathyrism, characterized by a paralysis of the lower limbs, results. Similar incidents have occurred in India and Bangladesh. The major component responsible for the disease is -Noxalyl-,-diaminopropionic acid (-ODAP) (Figure 1a). In an aqueous solution, -ODAP slowly isomerizes to the nontoxic -ODAP until a 3:2 equilibrium mixture is attained at a temperature of ~55 °C. To detoxify the crop through agricultural or food processing technology, -ODAP must be selectively determined—most often by using the Rao method. This method involves the alkaline hydrolysis of -ODAP to L-,-diaminopropionic acid followed by reaction with orthophthalaldehyde, resulting in a colored compound that can be determined spectrophotometrically at 476 nm (9). Unfortunately, the method does not distinguish the from the form because both are hydrolysed to DAP. As part of his Ph.D. program at AAU, a student worked on this problem in collaboration with the University of Lund (Sweden). He screened several enzymes and found that L-glu112 A
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tamate oxidase showed catalytic activity towards -ODAP (10). An immobilized glutamate oxidase reactor was designed and used in flow injection mode for the selective determination of -ODAP (11). Research by several more graduate students improved the biosensor. Among the first problems tackled were interference from L-glutamate and a decrease in the response of the reactor after several injections. They stabilized the reactor by precipitating proteins from the grass pea extracts with trichloroacetic and perchloric acids (12). An LC-biosensor system was later designed on the basis of separating -ODAP from interfering amino acids on an anionexchange column coupled to an amperometric enzyme electrode (13). The electrode was based on a graphite rod modified with an Os2+/3+ redox polymer cross-linked with L-glutamate oxidase and horseradish peroxidase (Figure 1b). For an injection column of 100 µL, this system was able to monitor ODAP in concentrations as low as 4 µM. Although a noticeable improvement over the initial enzyme reactor, the method lacked linear calibration characteristics. The next generation of biosensors was based on cross-linking horseradish peroxidase and the osmium-mediating polymer with polyethylene glycol (400) diglycidyl ether to form an inner hydrogel layer and then immobilizing L-glutamate oxidase as an outer layer on top of a graphite electrode (14, 15). Polyethylenimine was added to the hydrogel to increase sensitivity and stability of the biosensor. This bilayer construction gave a wide linear range (1–250 µM) for both L-glutamate and -ODAP. The detection limit for -ODAP was 2 µM. Throughout these studies involving Ethiopian graduate students, our Swedish counterparts at Lund University played key roles in transferring biosensor knowledge and technology to AAU. Lund’s interest in the selective analytical determination of -ODAP has been sustained for close to a decade, with a spin-off in food chemistry. Another Ethiopian student completed his Ph.D. at Lund University after performing research on the effect of various food processing techniques on reducing the level of -ODAP, which was determined using the methods developed at Lund and AAU. The research on the selective determination of -ODAP has proven to be original and relevant, as evidenced by the number of articles published in local and international journals (10–15).
Building scientific capacity Some donor organizations and an increasing number of governments in developing countries are becoming well aware of the importance of quality scientific research. In the poorest of these countries, donor organizations provide the bulk of funds for building scientific capacity. However, their expertise is often limited, and the input from the scientific community can be essential. Other essential contributions for building scientific capacity and improving the quality of life in developing countries are relatively inexpensive and can be made by individual scientists and scientific
societies. Many laboratories in wealthier countries have a surplus of ing countries and the conditions of their colleagues (17). There journals, books, and functioning analytical instruments. Scientific are still severe problems in developing countries for which a soorganizations such as ACS could further improve donations of such lution will make a substantial difference. The exchange of scienitems. Scientific journals could waive page charges for authors in de- tists and students in both directions has often turned out to be a veloping countries and make a special effort to make authors aware highly rewarding experience for all parties. of this; many authors have given up publishing in these journals because they believe they must pay these charges out of very scarce Theodros Solomon is a professor at AAU. He was also president of the funds (16). (Editor’s note: ACS journals do not have page charges.) Chemical Society of Ethiopia and has participated in national studies on With the huge number of students studying outside their own higher education in Ethiopia. Malin Åkerblom is the director of the Intercountries, it is important that national Programme in Chemical host universities and advisers Sciences, which is part of ISP at make themselves aware of the Uppsala University. Erik W. ThulAcquiring spare parts, situation in the students’ home strup is a professor at Roskilde Unidepartments so that the usefulversity. He was a senior science accessories, research ness of their research projects is and technology specialist at the optimized and can be fruitful World Bank, president of the chemicals, and other supplies after their return. EncourageDanish National Commission for is a serious problem. ment and assistance right after UNESCO, and a fellow of the TWAS the students graduate and reand the Norwegian Academy of turn home are also essential. Science. Address correspondence Agreements can be made so that graduate study programs di- to Thulstrup at Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Roskilde rectly support local capacity building in the developing country University, P.O. Box 260, DK-4000, Roskilde, Denmark (
[email protected]). using the sandwich model. Visiting professorships at universities in developing countries for nationals who have established their References careers in other countries could help professors contribute more (1) UNESCO. World Science Report, UNESCO, Paris, 1998. knowledge and expertise to their home country (16). Within a (2) Henry, L. Levels and chemodynamics of some pesticides in southern region, dual or multiple appointments of professors in different Lake Victoria and its basin, and in water, sediments, and Tilapia species developing countries could also help. Scientific societies in the inunder laboratory conditions. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, dustrialized world could encourage, support, and even collaboTanzania, 2003. rate with regional and national networks and societies in develop- (3) Thulstrup, E. W. In Engineering and Technology for Sustainable Development; ing countries. They usually have the scientific capacity, the modest Mwamila, B. L. M., Thulstrup, E. W., Eds.; Sida/SAREC: Stockholm, funds needed, and qualified members, including those from deSweden, 2002. veloping countries available, who can collaborate constructive- (4) Solomon, T. SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. 1996, 19, 1. ly and take part in a mutual exchange of experiences. (5) Åkerblom, M.; Cox, J. In World Directory of Pesticide Control Organisations; In situations where there are not enough professionals and Ekström, G., Ed.; Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, U.K., 1996. resources, temporary resource centers, such as the NABSA-af- (6) Åkerblom, M. Environmental Monitoring of Pesticide Residues. Guidelines for filiated laboratories, can be established throughout the region. the SADC Region. Monitoring Techniques series, vol. 3. Southern Africa For example, one country in the region could concentrate on Development Community, Environment and Land Management Sector, spectroscopy, another on chromatography, a third on electroMaseru, Lesotho, 1995. analytical techniques, and so forth. These centers could be used (7) www.africaonline.com; www.ethioworld.com; http://allafrica.com. to train and serve researchers until they have sufficiently devel- (8) http://emeagwali.com/interviews. oped their own capacity. Networks will ensure the critical intel- (9) Rao, S. L. N. Anal. Biochem. 1978, 86, 386. lectual mass. Intellectual and financial support from the rele- (10) Moges, G.; Solomon, T.; Johansson, G. Anal. Lett. 1994, 27, 2207. vant scientific societies in the industrialized world would help (11) Moges, G.; Johansson, G. Anal. Chem. 1994, 66, 3834. promote the centers and networks. (12) Wodajo, N.; Moges, G.; Solomon, T. Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 1996, 10, 129. Major instrument suppliers need to view developing countries (13) Belay, A.; et al. Anal. Chem. 1997, 69, 3471. as future markets and provide quality services for their cus- (14) Yigzaw, Y.; Larsson, N.; Gorton, L.; Ruzgas, T.; Solomon, T. J. Chromatogr. A tomers. Sending an instrument engineer to a developing country 2001, 929, 13. at no charge to train technicians and scientists, service instru- (15) Yigzaw, Y.; Gorton, L.; Solomon, T. Curr. Sep. 2002, 19, 119. ments in the vicinity, and establish rapport with researchers and (16) Yisak, W. A.; Ogubazghi, G. In Research Training for Development; Thulstrup, laboratories should be considered. Finally, individual scientists W. E., Ed.; Roskilde University Press: Copenhagen, Denmark, 1996. need to take an interest in the research problems in the develop- (17) Thulstrup, E. W. J. Mol. Struct. 1995, 347, 509. M A R C H 1 , 2 0 0 3 / A N A LY T I C A L C H E M I S T R Y
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