Recent Progress in the Field of Fuels and Fuel Technology'”

Julv. 1924

INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMIXTRY

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Recent Progress in the Field of Fuels and Fuel Technology’” By R. T. Haslam and E. W. Thiele MASSACHUSETTS

I N S T I T U T E OF

TECHNOLOGY, C A M B R I D G S , MASS.

Fische9 has brought forI n comparing the trend of progress in fuels and fuel technology in ward the suggestion that the the period prior to the the principal countries of the world, it is apparent that the problems material of coal is mainly the Great War, the presselected for investigation are determined by the requirements of nalignin portion of the original ent is a time of great activity tional defense and economic necessity. In the United States, with plant, the cellulose having in research and practical deexcellent fuel but with high labor costs and low-priced European been decomposed by bacteria. velopment in all branches of competition, much attention has been directed to the production of Pictetg has shown that the the science and technology of cheap and abundant power by the erection and interlocking of large distillation products of coal fuels and combustion. In central power stations into great superpower systems, and by the are more like the distillation 1910 the Gas and Fuel Secattainment of high boiler eficiencies through the use of powdered coal. products of lignin than like tion of Chemical Abstracts In Engand, with its smoke problem caused partly by the use of soft those of cellulose. However, p u b l i s h e d 2 5 5 abstracts, coal in open domestic grates, and with its necessity for large home the view that coal consists which were 1.96 per cent.],* of supplies of bunker oil for the use of the Navy, attention has turned of the lignin portion of the all the abstracts (except patto the low-temperature carbonization of coal which gives a smokeless wood only has met with some ents) published in that year. semicoke for use in grates and at the same time a large yield of liquid opposition. lo In 1923, 845 abstracts were fuel. On the other hand, the safety of France lies in adequate land It has been suggestedll that published, which formed 4.33 defense requiring great quantities of lighter motor fuel for automobile the nitrogen in coal is due per cent of the whole numand aviation engines. Owing to a lack of petroleum other methods largely to nitrogen-fixing orber, or ol’er double the natof supply are needed and her great tropical possessions naturally ganisms in the original peat ural increase.2 The past five suggest vegetable sources for this fuel; therefore, in France several bog, since woody plant mateyears have witnessed the apdiflerent investigations are in progress along this line. Germany is rial does not contain enough pearance of a new sort of also short of oil, but owing to her recent loss of high-grade coal fields nitrogen to account for all p e r i o d i cal-on e devoted this latter shortage is more pressing at present; hence in Germany the nitrogen in coal. This wholly to fuels, such as Fuel important studies in the use of low-grade fuels and in the more is especially true in connectn Science and Practice, in rational chemical utilization of all kinds of fuels are now being tion with the high nitrogen England; Chaleur et industrie, carried out. content of peat.12 in France ; Brennstoff-Chemie, SPo N T A N E o U S COMBUSin Germany. To these may be added such periodicals as Archiv f u r Warmewirtschaft, TION A N D STORAGE-The campaign for the more general storSparwirtschaft, FueLs and Furnaces, and Combustion, not to men- age of coal, undertaken to make the demand on the bituminous industry more uniform, is leading to a more widespread distion oil and gas papers-all founded within the last five years. This superabundance of material has made it necessary, in what semination of existing knowledge on the subject of the spontanefollows, t o treat each subject very briefly. The solid fuels come ous combustion of ~0al.13 As just indicated, considerable progfirst, followed by liquid and gaseous. ress has been made in England in showing the relation between THECGWSTITUTION OF COAL-In the replies to the questioncomposition of the coal substances and spontaneous c0mbustion.1~ naire the increase in our knowledge of the constitution of coal HIGHTEMPERATURES IN POWER PRoDucTIoN-In the interests was indicated as important more often than any other subject, of more efficient generation of power there have been two novel save one. This problem is receiving attention in many quarters. and important developments. One is the use of steam a t very Most important seems to be the work of Stopes and Wheeler,3 high temperatures and pressures. The Benson superpressure who have extended their study of the properties of durain, plant a t Rugby, England,15 generates steam above the critical clarain, fusain, and vitrain. Their work on the absorption of which point-3200 pounds per square inch and 706” F.-at oxygen by these constituents tends t o show that the fusain ab- point the specific volumes of steam and water are equal. It sorbs oxygen most readily a t low temperatures and thus begins requires, of course, no steam drum, since there is no “boiling.” spontaneous heating, while the vitrain is probably the first This plant, of 1000 kw., is said to be in operation a t the present time,16 but no details as to economy are available. There are constituent to ignite. Illingsworth* has discussed the action of the gamma compounds (those soluble in pyridine and chloro- now several other installations operating a t 550 to 900 pounds per form) in giving the coking qualities t o a coal. The examinasquare inch in the United States,15Germany,15i17 and Sweden.15*13 tion of coal by metallographic methods (reflected light), devised The other development is the use of mercury as the vaporizing by Winter,5 is becoming better known, and has been applied fluid, a successful experimental unit now being in operation a t by Groundsa and by Seyler’ to the study of anthracite, to which Hartford, Conn. a plant of the Hartford Electric Light co.,15,19 the application of the thin section method (transmitted light) At this plant the mercury is evaporated a t 35 pounds gage and was unsuccessful. In this way these workers were able to show 812’ F. in a special boiler, the mercury condenser being a high that durain, clarain, fusain, and vitrain exist in anthracite as pressure boiler as used for ordinary steam generation. Owing well as in bituminous coal. This is an important confirmation to the great temperature difference between the mercury boiler of the usual view of the common origin of these kinds of coal. and the final condenser, the efficiency theoretically possible is relatively high, and in practice this plant should give 50 per cent 1 Received April 30, 1924. * This paper is based on the abstracts in Chemical Abstvacts, on many more steam per pound of fuel than a good 200-pound steam turbine plant. original papers, and on the results of a questionnaire sent out to representative American and foreign workers in fuel research and fuel technology. POWDERED COAL-The great increase in the use of powdered The questions asked were: “What do you consider the most important recoal is, for the United States, the most important single developcent developments in this field, and on what problems are you and your ment of the last few years, especially in view of the size of the associates now engaged!” More than 190 replies were received. boiler plants where powdered coal is being installed. * Numbers in text refer t o bibliography a t end of article.

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In powdered coal technic the tendency is away from exceed- while, the Glasgow Municipal Corporation has installed a battery ingly fine grinding. If not more than 10 per cent remains on of MacLaurin retorts, and these are now in operation. The a 100-mesh sieve and if a t least 65 per cent passes through a Fuel Research Board has been experimenting with several forms 200-mesh sieve, the grinding is satisfactory.2a There is a wide of low-temperature processes, especially carbonization in veruse of air-cooled walls and water screens, by means of which the tical retorts.28 life of the furnace brickwork is increased and trouble with the At Gelsenkirchen, Germany, Schiitz has a horizontal, reslagging of ash is reduced. Flue gas driers for the coal are coming volving, externally heated retort, with a capacity of 50 tons into favor, in place of the large, independently fired, rotary driers. of coal a day. A great deal of work is being done in Germany In the flue gas driers hot flue gas is withdr,awn from the stack on the composition and utilization of low-temperature tars.29 and made to circulate around the coal by means of an exhaust Since low-temperature tar contains twenty times as much fan. A great deal of interest is displayed by mqny manufac- phenols as does high-temperature tar,3@this constituent has returers in unit pulverizers, in which the coal is crushed, pulverized, ceived special attention.31 The most promising process is and blown into the furnace directly. These are especially con- Fischer's method of extracting the phenols with superheated venient where an existing boiler installation is to be converted watera2and subsequently reducing them to hydrocarbons in a to powdered coal. There has been sofne controversy as to the heated iron tube, sulfided inside, to prevent the iron from catadvisability of discharging large quantities of ash from the stacks alyzing the decomposition of the phenols.83~34 of boiler plants, as occurs in powdered coal firing. COALWASHING-There is today a widespread interest in The efficiencies obtainable from powdered coal are remarkcleaner coal. Of the methods of obtaining this, the most inably high. Ninety per cent gross boiler and economizer effi- teresting are the Trent coal-oil amalgam process35 and the ciency have been reached a t the Lakeside power station of the analogous process of flotation, which is being developed in EngMilwaukee Electric Railway and Light Company.21 land.36 A plant for applying the Trent process to the production In Europe, the greatest development of powdered coal so far of domestic fucl is to be erected a t Hamilton, Ontario, the has been in France. I n England, the installation of powdered amalgam formed being carbonized. coal equipment is just beginning, the first one or two installations THECOMBUSTIBILITY OF COKE-The combustibility of metalhaving just been installed.22 Many English and German lurgical coke seems to be the center of interest in this field in authorities are not convinced that powdered coal is a logical Germany and England, as well as in the United States. If a improvement in methods of using coaL23 coke gives poor results in the blast furnace, its combustibility SUPERPOWER-The gradual linking of the no&heastern states is said to be poor. Whether the results obtained are due to the into a superpower zone has not been ptished to any great extent, ignition temperature of the c0ke,~7to the rate of oxidation of although in a few places the ideas of the Superpower Survey are the coke,3* or to a greater rapidity in reduction by carbon dibeing followed in new expansions. oxide,aQis uncertain. Consequently, the situation regarding the LOW-TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION-The interest in low- determination of coke combustibility is chaotic, and will continue temperature carbonization is exceedingly widespread. The to be so until more is known regarding what happens to the coke in the blast furnace, or until a n empirical connection is found recent literature on the subject is very extensive, and in the between some laboratory test and the action of the coke in the replies to the questionnaire this subject was mentioned much more frequently than any other. A good deal of the activity, blast furnace. A step in the right direction is being taken by however, seems to be misdirected. The success of low-tempera- the United States Bureau of Mines, which has installed an ex~ ~ the purpose of ture carbonization will depend on the market for the products; perimental blast furnace a t M i n n e a p o l i ~for studying this whole q ~ e s t i o n . ~ ' and until more is known about the possibilities of those products elaborately worked-out plants and processes are premature. LIGNITE-Most of the work on the utilization of lignites has If once it is known that a specific grade of low-temperature coke been done in Germany, Canada, and the Dakotas. Efforts or low-temperature tar will supply a definite demand, a successful to improve the quality of this material as a fuel generally have plant can then be designed to produce this grade of product. been along the line of carbonizing, more economical drying, At present we do not even know whether t a r or coke is the more and briquetting. The Hood-Ode11 oven, developed by the important. It seems likely that the first successful plants will Bureau of Mines, appears to be quite satisfactory, so much so specialize mainly in one or the other, All the early high- t h a t the Canadian Lignite Utilization Board has abandoned the temperature coking plants produced primarily either coke or development of its own process, stating that the Hood-Ode11 gas; the present by-product oven is the result of a century's oven was a commercial success.42 This board has recently experience. A study of low-temperature coke and low-tempera- issued a most complete and authoritative bulletin on the whole ture tars and their utilization, rather than of low-temperature question of lignite carbonization. This bulletin gives the results carbonization, would seem to be demanded a t the present time. of the board's own experiments together with a digest of conI n the United States three processes are important in view temporary ~ o r k . ~ 2 Because of Germany's losses in higher grade coal resources, of the scale on which the development is conducted. The Carbocoal pro~ess,2~ which has been taken over by the Con- it has been necessary to fall back on the central German lignite, solidation Coal Products Company, distils the coal in a stationary and recent years have brought forth a feverish activity along almost every line of lignite utilization-drying, briquetting, retort with internal agitation. The resulting semicoke is briquetcarbonizing, pulverizing, firing, and its use for domestic purted with pitch and again carbonized, this time a t a high temperature, with the recovery of further by-products. The Greene- poses.43,44 PEAT-Methods of winning, dehydrating, and carbonizing Laucks process, which is being studied in Denver, distils the coal peat are being studied in England,46 Holland,46 Germany,47 in a vertical metal tube, the coal being propelled up the tube S c a n d i n a ~ i a ,and ~ ~ Car1ada.4~ No radically new methods that by an internal screw.ps Both tube and screw are heated. In seem promising industrially have been developed recently. the Piron-Caracristi process the coal is distilled in a thin layer on a traveling belt, which floats in, and is heated by, a molten LOW-GRADE FuELs-Much interest is manifested in this counlead bath. A plant using this process, rated a t 400 tons of coal try and in Europe in the reclamation and utilization of fuels a day, is being built for the Ford Motor Company a t Ford, with high ash. I n Germany, the magnetic separator for reOntario.26 covering unburned fuel from ashes has been installed to a conI n England, the Coalite people at Barnsley continue to report siderable ext.ent.60 In France, the carbonization of high-ash progress, but they are not as yet on a commercial basis.2' Meancoals has been carried out with the special object of increasing

July, 1924

INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

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I n this process water gas compressed to 150 atmospheres is passed a t 400' to 450' C. over iron filings coated with an alkali such as potassium carbonate. Part of the water gas condenses t o a liquid of two layers, which contains water, fatty acids up to isobutyric, the alcohols to propyl, acetone, methylethyl ketone, many aldehydes and esters, and a trace of hydrocarbons. After removing the acids and water this mixture makes a satisfactory motor fuel. This process is not yet commercialized, but it is rumored that the Badische company is backing it. LIQUIDFUELS FUELOIL FOR DOMESTIC HEATING-In the field Of domestic ANTIDETONATION COMPOUNDS-TUrning now to liquid fuels, heating the increase in fuel oil burners has been phenomenal. special mention must be made of the work of Midgley on the The total number of such burners now installed in this country suppression of detonation in internal combustion engines.51 is probably more than one hundred thousand. Practically The addition t o gasoline of small amounts of a material such as all this development has come in the past two or three years. lead tetraethyl, Pb(C*H5)4, will make possible the designing of The most pressing economic necessity in this field is the develophigh compression engines, capable of a 30 per cent increase in ment of a cheap, dependable burner for small and mediumfuel efficiency. This, together with the reduction in weight of sized homes. the automobile having such a n engine, offers the possibility of FUELOIL IN THE: INDUSTRIAL FIELD-In the industrial field a saving of a t least 40 per cent of our gasoline. On the basis the use of mechanical atomization continues to increase in favor, of the 1923 consumption of gasoline in this country alone, this owing primarily to the ability of this system to maintain a high means an eventual saving of a t least 2,500,000,000 gallons of efficiency when operating at high overloads. gasoline per year. Gasoline treated with aq antidetonation The only novel development in the industrial use of oil is mixture is already on sale in many states, particularly in the the Cannon radiation furnace,63 in which fuel oil is burned a t a Middle West. very high temperature within carborundum semimuffle furnaces, ALCOHOL AS A FUEL FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES- the heat being transmitted through the carborundum by conThe production of alcohol and motor fuels containing alcohol duction and then by radiation to the object to be heated. Since has aroused intense interest in France, where the need of a motor this furnace is operated as a high-temperature oven, eight times fuel from sources other than petroleum is a matter of national the capacity per cubic foot of combustion space is obtainable safety. as compared with ordinary oil-fired furnaces. While in France (and in England under the Fuel Research work has been done on the production of alcohol from GASEOUSFUELS the available carbohydrates, the main effort has been directed OXYGENIN GAS-MAKINGAND METALLURGICAL WORK-. toward the blending of alcohol with commercial fuels. Owing to the limited solubility of 95 per cent alcohol in gasoline, efforts The use of oxygen-enriched air in gas-making has been discussed by numerous writers, but hitherto little, if any, experimental have been directed toward the cheap production of absolute work has been carried out. The most recent and positive dealcohol,Kaor to the addition of other substances (especially higher alcohols) which raise the mutual solubility of 95 per cent alcohol velopment in this field is now proceeding in Worcester, Mass., where the Jefferies-hTorton Corporation is building a plant for and hydrocarbons.64.55 producing 150,000 cubic feet of oxygen per day, to be used by the MOTORFUELFROM VEGETABLE OILS-In this connection Worcester Gas Light Company in continuous water-gas genermention may be made of the work of Mailhe,66who has attracted attention by his successful laboratory experiments on cracking ators. It is expected that this plant will be in operation late this coming summer. It is quite possible that this may be the vegetable oils, in the presence of suitable catalysts, into hydrocarbons much resembling natural petroleum. This line of re- beginning of a revolutionary development in the methods of gas production. search is of special interest to France.57 In metallurgical work some doubt exists as t o the extent of BERGIUSPROCESS FOR PRODUCTION OF LIQUIDS FROM SOLID oxygen enrichment desired.64 I n all the discussion on the use FuErs-Still another angle of approach to the problem of nonof oxygen-enriched air, emphasis has been placed on the producpetroleum gasoline is the Bergius process. In this process heavy oil, tar, pitch, asphalt, or even solid carbonaceous material, such tion of cheap oxygen, and but little attention has been paid to as coal dust, is hydrogenated and reduced to lower boiling prod- the possible difficulties in its use. For example, the need for proper refractories is obvious, but less considered is the fact that ucts by heating with hydrogen a t 200 atmospheres pressure and iron readily ignites and burns in oxygen. a t about 400" C., no catalyst being necessary.58 This process is THEBACK-RUN WATER-GAS PRocEss-+I'he water-gas plants being taken very seriously in Europe. While not yet on a comin this country are becoming much interested in the Youngmercial scale, it is being tried out, according to report, in a plant Whitwell back-run process, and several reports of the results employing about 235 men.69 A Belgian commission of experts, after visiting the plant, rendered a very favorable report.60 obtained in such plants have appeared.05 In this process the "down-run" steam is introduced into the top of the superheater, The process is undoubtedly one of the most important recent thus making the checkerwork act as a regenerator. While by developments in the oil industry, principally for countries having no means a complete solution of the problem of utilizing the waste coal but little oil, like most of Western Europe. For them it heat, it seems to offer a worth-while saving and increased capacity opens up a new source of the lighter motor fuels.01 with the minimum of capital outlay and the least change in SYNTHOL: A LIQUID FUEL FROM WATERGAs-The production method of operation. It seems likely that it will be widely of a cheap motor fuel from sources other than petroleum is sought adopted eventually. in a very different way by Franz Fischer. His work on the SOFTCOALFOR WATERGAS-A great deal of work is being production of a motor fuel, called Synthol, and a variety of ordone on the use of soft coal for water-gas generation, both in the ganic chemicals from water gas has made quite a stir on the East and in the Middle West.66 While most plants using soft Continent. Although the first communication on the subject coal mix i t with coke, a few at least are operating with soft coal did not appear until last autumn,62 the process has been indicated as important by half a dozen of our correspondents, not only only. The reduction in capacity, however, and the smoke German, but also Dutch and French. nuisance, together with the fact that the use of coal makes a

the domestic supply of motor fuel. In Germany and in England, high-ash fuels have been suitably mixed with a better fuel and burned under boilers. In certain sections of the eastern part of the United States many households are now burning the small steam sizes of anthracite. Small pressure blowers are installed to secure the necessary draft. In Harrisburg, Pa., for example, over two thousand such installations have been made. I n all countries the use a t the mine of what was formerly refuse has been stimulated by the prevailing high coal prices.

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plant more troublesome to operate, have prevented a general use of soft coal, in spite of the undoubted economy possible, especially where the “blow-run’’ can be used. BLUE WATER-GASPLANT TESTS-TWOinstructive English reports have been issued, one by the Fuel Research Board67 and one by the Institution of Gas Engineers,68 on the efficiency of blue water-gas plants. Unfortunately the complete results, being on blue water gas, are not directly applicable to the carbureted water gas of American gas works. ACCUMULATORS IN WATER-GAS PLANTS-sOme attention has been paid to the advantages of using accumulators in water-gas plants where exhaust steam is used, especially where individual blowers are provided for each set. The accumulator, which is nothing but a large tank of hot water, takes up the excess exhaust steam by condensation, and gives it out by boiling when a deficiency of steam causes a small drop in pressure. By smoothing out the demand of the machines, it effects a considerable steam saving. It is likely that accumulators will attract more attention in the future. THETHERM-The British system of charging for gas by the therm, 100,000 B. t. u., has survived, without modification, a severe campaign of newspaper criticism. It is now firmly established and practically in full working order. Little drastic lowering of the heating value of the gas has been attempted, and the feeling seems to be that even the moderate reductions actually put in effect were somewhat too great. At the present prices for oil, there is in this country little, if any, saving to be made by lowering the heating value standard of the gas. However, in Colorado a law is now in effect permitting gas companies to choose their own heating value standard, as in England. LIQUIDPURIFICATION-The Seaboard process of liquid purification of gas by scrubbing with soda ash solution has now been installed in at leaqt a dozen plants.68 The prospect of almost completely eliminating the troublesome oxide purification has made this process appeal strongly to gas manufacturers. However, since oxide purifiers are not completely eliminated by this process, it is especially attractive to existing plants needing more purifier capacity. The nuisance created by the hydrogen sulfide in the air used to regenerate the soda ash has made it necessary, in some cases a t least, to use this air under the b0ilers.~0 SLAGGING TYPE O F GAS PRODUCER-The slagging type Of gas producer, in which the ash of the coal is fluxed with limestone or blast furnace slag, has been experimented on by numerous investigators, especially in Germany and France.71 I t s attractions are its high capacity, its ability to handle high-ash coals, and its freedom from the fuel bed troubles common to ordinary producers. This type of producer will probably be used to a considerable extent in the future, especially ?n the steel industry, where the handling of slag is commonplace. Owing to the high operating temperatures, the introduction of oxygen-enriched air would also favor this type of producer. GASRETORTS-The tendency of the gas industry has been toward the elimination of horizontal and inclined retorts and in favor of by-product coke ovens or continuous verticals, depending on local conditions. All the by-product coke ovens installed in this country during the past year have been much narrower than in previous years. The use of blue water gas or producer gas for the heating of coke ovens is receiving more attention. GASFOR HOUSEHEATING-some manufactured-gas companies believe t h a t the time has arrived when houses can be heated with gas, and are making special efforts and special rates to attract such customers. This development is on a small scale as yet. If the price of furnace oil advances materially, householders who have installed oil burners should prove a fruitful field for the extension of domestic gas heating. NATURAL GAS-Owing to a decrease in the supply of natural gas, a number of American cities have been giving attention to the problems involved in the change to manufactured gas.

Vol. 16,No. 7

At Buffalo, for example, vertical retorts and blue water-gas generators are being installed, and the remaining natural gas will be used €or enrichment purposes. OIL GAS-The recent low prices for oil have stimulated the use of oil gas processes, especially in California. GASEOUSCoMBUsTIoN-English investigators are doing a great deal of work on the phenomena of flames and explosions.72 Especially has the discovery by Bone of the effect of nitrogen on the combustion of carbon monoxide a t high pressures excited general interest.73 Bone found that nitrogen, when present in carbon monoxide and oxygen mixtures, absorbs the energy of the explosion and gives it out very gradually, so that the maximum explosion pressure is lowered and the time for combustion much increased. No such effects are found when other gases, such as argon, replace the nitrogen. The nitrogen, after an explosion, is found to have been partly oxidized. I n addition to its possible importance to the fixation of nitrogen, the discovery may throw light on the nature of chemical action. WASTEHEATRECOVERY-In this country greater attention is now paid to the recovery of waste heat. For example, all new open-hearth furnaces are being equipped with waste-heat boilers and a similar development is occurring in the manufactured-gas industry. A noticeable increase in the use of recuperators for gas-fired furnaces has occurred. Preheated air is beginning to be used for stoker-fired furnaces, and has resulted in an increase in efficiency of 6 to 8 per ~ e n t . 7 ~ I n Europe, especially in Central Europe, an even more intense development along similar lines has been going on ever since the war. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The writers take this opportunity of thanking their many correspondents, who have so generously’ taken the time and trouble to write long letters, and have supplied them so liberally with material, published and unpublished. The friendly, helpful spirit they have encountered in every direction has been an inspiration in a difficult task, and has brought home the fact that workers in science, pure and applied, form in some sense a community, in which the instinct of “neighborliness” is not deficient.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1-J. Am. Chem. Soc., Proc., 33, 20 (1911). 2-Ibid., 46, 22 (1924). 3-Fuel, 2, 29, 53, 122 (1923). 4-Ibid., 1, 59 (1922). 5--Gliickauf, 49, 1406 (1913); Fuel, 2, 75 (1923). 6-Ibid., 2, 10 (1923). 7-Ib~d., 2, 217 (1923). 5-Fischer and Schrader, “Entstehung und Chemische Struktur der Kohle,” Essen, 1922; Fuel, 1, 93 (1922); Ibid., 2, 113 (1923). 9-Pictet and Gaulis, Brennstof-Chem., 4, 372 (1923). 10-Audibert and Raineau, Res. ind. m i n h l e , March 15, 1924; Marcusson, Z. angew. Chem., 34, 437 (1921); 35, 165 (1922): 36, 42 (1923); Jones and Wheeler, Fuel, 1, 91 (1922); Jones, Ibid., 2, 133 (1923). 11-Strache, Zikes, and Polcich, Brennstoff-Chem.,4, 244 (1923). 12-On the Constitution of Coal see also Pearson, J . SOC.Chem. I n d . , 42,68T (1923); Hofmanand Damm, Brennstof-Chem., 4 , 6 5 (1923); Schrauth, I b i d . , 4, 161 (1923); Piettre, Compt. rend., 177, 486 (1923); Graham, Coll i e r y Guardian, 126, 1232 (1923); Gothan, Braunkohle, 22, 49, 569 (1923); Hendrickson, Fuel, 2, 103 (1923); Lessing, Iron Coal Trades Rev., 105, 724 (1923); Zander, Braunkohle, 22, 17, 38 (1923); Jeffrey, Science, 88, 285 (1923). 13-Mech. Eng., 45, 397 (1923). 14--Davis, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Cooperative Mining Courses, Bull. 3 (1922); Briggs, Iron Coal Trades Rev., 105, 715 (1922). 15--Power, 69, 7 (1924). 16-Chemistry and Industry, 43, 249 (1924). 17-2. V e r . deut. I n g . , 67, 1145 (1923). 15-On High Pressures see also Power Plant Eng., 27, 1047 (1923); (Ltm. A$$., 10, 101, 111, 115, 125, 156 (1923). 19--Ctarke, Mech. Eng., 46, 91 (1924); Power Plant E n g . , 28, 136 (1924); Power, 68, 876 (1923); Eng. M i n . J., 116, 1057 (1923). 20-Brownlie, Trans. Inst. Elec. Eng., preprint, 1923 ; Verdinne, Fuel, 2, 146 (1923); Kreisinger, et al., B U Y .Mines, Bull. 223 (1923).

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55-On Alcohol-Gasoline Mixtures see also Baume, Chimie b industrie, 21-Bur. Mines, Repts. Investigations 2438 (1923). 9, 706 (1923); Guinot, Ibid., 9, 722 (1923); Godchot and Gay, Ibid., 9, 22-For France see Chaltur et industrie, 1923, 487; Audibert, Rev. 731 (1923); Cbambige, Ibid., 9, 702 (1923); Dumanois, Compt. retzd., 176, ind. mindrale, 1924, 1. 1449 (1923); Boussi, Ibid., 176, 30 (1922). 23-On Powdered Coal see also Kreisinger and Blizard, Bur. Mines, 56-J. usines gas, 46, 289 (1922); Ibid., 47, 65, 321 (1923); Compt. Tech. Paper 316 and Bull. 223 ; Hobbs and Heller, Proc. E n g . SOC.Western rend., 177,202 (1923). Penn., 39, 217 (1923); Morrow, Elec. W o r l d , 82, 525 (1923); Petri, Arch. 57-On a similar process see Kawai, C. A . , 17, 2187 (1923); Inouye, Wiivmewirtschaft, 4, 65 (1923); deGrey, Res. mblal., 19, 645 (1923); Schulte, Ibid., 17, 2953 (1923). On the Use of Uncracked Palmoilsee Delahousse, Glilckauf, 59,205,240 (1923); Atterbury, Foundry, 60,880 (1922); Hamilton, Ckimie b industrie, 9,764 (1923). Mining Met., 3, 25 (October, 1922); Lowndes, Iron Age, 112, 1721 (1923). 58-Bruylants, Bull. soc. chim. Belg., 32, 194 (1923); Fischer, “Die 24-Curtis, e t a l . , Chem. Met. Eng., 28,11,60,118, 171 (1923). Umwandlung der Kohle in ole,” Berlin, 1924,p. 263. 25-First General Report Lignite Utilization Board (Canada), 1924, 59-Graham and Shotwell, Fuel, 2, 55 (1923). p. 243. 60-Iron Coal Trades Rev., 107,735 (1923). 26-Caracrist3, Power, 67, 831 (1923); Chem. .Age, 31, 361 (1923). 61-For other work along similar lines see Fischer, 09. czt., p. 231; 27-Coilievy Guardian, 126, 907 (1923). Waterman and Perquin, Proc. Acad. Sci. Amsterdam, 26,226 (1923); Chim.ae 28-Fuel Research Board, Tech. Paper 7. Er industrie, 9, 200 (1923). 29-Fischer, Ber., 56B, 1791 (1923); Broche, Ibid., 56B, 1787 (1923); 62-Brennstof-Chem., 4, 276 (1923); Ber., 66, 2428 (1923); o p . c i t . , p. Schiitz, et al., Ibid., 56B, 162, 869, 1091, 1967 (1923); Fromm and Eckard, 269. I b i d . , 56B, 948 (1923); Fischer, Brennstof-Chem., 4, 49 (1923); Schiitz, 63--Power, July 17, 1923. Ibid., 4, 84 (1923); Weindel, Ibid., 4, 321 (1923); Weissgerber and Moehrle, 64--Derclaye, Res. Metal., 20, 830 (1923); Davis, B u r . Mines, Repts. Ibid., 4, 51, 81 (1923); Arnold, Z.angew. Chem., 86,266 (1923); Marcusson Inwestzgations 2505 (1923); Schenck. Stahl u. Ezsen, 44, 521 (1924). and Picard, I b z d . , 35, 493 (1922); 36, 253 (1923); E’aber, Ibid., 36, 1, 11 65-Bauer, Gas Age-Record, 53,191 (1924); Klyce, Ibid., 52,331 (1923); (1923) ; Finkemeyer, Feuevungstechnik, 11, 187 (1923). Whitwell and Young, Chem. Met. Eng., 29, 664 (1923); Welch, Gas Age30-Scl1iitz, Brennstof-Chem., 4, 85 (1923). Record, 53, 33 (1924); Kleinman, Proc. Illinois Gas Assoc., 1924 (preprint). 3l--Jat:ger, Ibid., 4, 258 (1923); Gollmer, Ibid., 4, 1, 19 (1923); Hof66-Ode11 and Dunkley, Bur. Mines, Bull. 203 (1924); Odell, Bur. man and Heyn, Ibid., 4, 209 (1923); Greenbaum, Oesierr. Chem.-Ztg., 26, Mines, Tech. Paper 274 (1923). 147 (1923). 67-King and Fraser-Shaw, Fuel Research Board, Tech. Paper 6 (1923). 32-Fischer, et al., Brennstof-Chem., 4,225, 241, 261 (1923). 68-Trans. Inst. Gas. Eng., 1922-3,293. 33-Fischer and Zerbe, Ibid., 4,309 (1923). 69-Sperr, Gas Age-Record, 52, 553 (1923); Seymour, Ibid., 50, 765 34-On Low-Temperature Tars see also Bradley and Parr, Chem. (1922); Welch, Ibzd., 53, 33 (1924); Bird, Chem. Met. Eng., 29, 16 (1923). Met. Eng., 87, 737 (1922); Morgan and Soule, I n d . Eng. Chem., 15, 693 7O-Broker, Gas Age-Record, 61,499 (1923). (1923); Nidsen, Beama, 12, 28 (1923). 71-Dessemond, Gbnie civil, 79, 561 (1921); Sepulchre, Chaleur et indusOn Low-Temperature Carbonization see also Moritz, Chimie b trie, July, 1923, 316; Philipon, Ibid., 1923, 324; Wilhelmi, Stakl 16. Eisen, industrie, 8, 1172 (1922); Tupholme, Chem. Met. Eng., 29, 752 (1923); Rambush, J . West Scotland Iron Steel Inst., 30, 18 (1923); Gram, C. A , , 17, 45, 1419 (1923). 72-Ellis, J. Chem. Soc. (London), 123, 1435 (1923); Payman, Ibid , 2492 (1923); Parr, Gas Age-Record, 50, 531 (1922); Thau, GlBckauf, 59, 123,412 (1923); Payman and Wheeler, I b i d . , 123,426,1251 (1923); Payman 29, 55 (1923); Nielsen, Beama, 11, 793 (1922); 12,28 (1923). and Walls, Ibid., 123,420 (1923); Dixon and Walls, Ibid., 123, 1025 (1923); 35-Haanel, Canadian Dept. Mines, Summary Rept., 574, 45 (1922); Campbell, dhid., 121,2483 (1922); White, Ibid., 121, 2561 (1922); Mason Davis, Bur. Mines, Repts. Investigations 2413 (1923) ; Baranov, Fuel, and Wheeler, Ibid., 121, 2079 (1922); Mason, Ibid., 123, 210 (1923); Fuel, 2, 236 (1923). 2, 110 (1923); Morgan, J . Chem. Soc. ( L o n d o n ) , 128, 1304 (1923); Phil. 36-Tupholme, Coal A g e , 24, 177, 277 (1923); Wood, Iron Coal Trades Mag., 45, 968 (1923); Kratz and Rosecrans, University of Illinois, Eng. Rev., 106, 732 (1922). Expt. Sta., Bull. 133 (1922); Cranz and Barnes, 2. angew. Chem., 36, 37-Bunte, Brennstof-Chem., 4,167 (1923); Gas U. Wasserfach, 65,592 76 (1923); Bone, ~t al., J . Chem. SOC.(London), 123,2008 (1928); Taffanel, (1922). Chaleur et industrie, August, 1923, p. 598; Berl and Fischer, 2. Elekfrochem., 38-Sherman and Blizard, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1217s SO, 29 (1924). (1923); Korevaar, Stahl u. Eisen, 43,431 (1923). 73-Bone, Newitt, and Townend, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), 103A, 39-Koppers, Fuel, 2, 160 (1923); Fischer, et al., Brennstof-Chem., 205 (1923); lOSA, 406 (1924). 4,33 (1922). 74--CIarke, Mech. Eng., 46,64 (1924). 40--Royster, et al., Bur. Mines, Repts. Investigations 2524 (1923). 41-FOr Combustibility of Coke see also Hausser, Glilckauf, 59, 699 (1923); Stnhl u. Eisen, 43, 903 61923); B e y . Ges. Kohlentech., 1923, 265; Heyd, Brennstof-Chem., 4, 198 (1923); Sperr and Jacobson, Blast Furnace Steel Plnnt, 11, 314, 378, 426 (1923); Zeyringer, Stahl u. Eisen, 43, 1215 The Pfaudler Company Purchases Elyria Enameled (1923); Mathesius, Ibid., 43, 873, 907 (1923); Sutcliffe, et a l . , J.lron Steel Products Company Inst., 107, 27 (1923); Sherman and Kinney, Iron A g e , 111, 1839 (1923); Broche, Brennstof-Chem., 4, 343 (1923); Thau, Stahl u. Eisen, 43, 1127 The Pfaudler Co., Rochester, N. Y . , announces that i t has (1923); Balir, Ibid., 44, 1, 39 (1924). purchased all the assets of The Elyria Enameled Products Co., 42-First General Report Lignite Utilization Board (Canada), 1924; Elyria, Ohio. The purchase was consummated June 3, 1924. It Bur. Mines, Repts. Insestigations 2441 (1923). is the intention of The Pfaudler Company to continue operation 43-Ruhemann and Rosenthal, Z. angew. Chem., 36, 153 (1923); in the Elyria factory and t o continue the production of Elyria Frank, Zbid., 36, 141, 165 (1923); Pfaff and Kreutzer, Ibid., 36, 437 (1923); equipment. All the staff of The Elyria Enameled Products Engelhard, Ibid., 36, 98 (1923); Dubois and Muller, 2. Ver. deut. Ing., Company have been retained, and with bigger production made 66, 821 (1922) ; Braunkohle, Braunkohlenarch$s, and other German fuel possible through the operation of both factories, even better and periodicals, passim. more complete service than heretofore will be given. 44-On Lignite Carbonization see also Pieters, Rev. Me‘tal., 20, Ext. The Pfaudler Company is rapidIy completing plans to place 386 (1923); Damour and Laffargue, Chimie & industrie, Special No., on the market a new line of glass-lined piping for the chemical 466 (1923); Babcock and Odell, Bur. Mines, Bull. 221 (1923); Laffargue and allied industries. The production of the famous line of and Jaugey, A n n . mines, [121 1, 327 (1922). Elyria glass-enameled cast-iron equipment will be continued. 45-Report Fuel Research Board, “The Production of Air-Dried Peat;” It is also announced that The Pfaudler Company’s European Spiers, J. SCC.C h e w I n d . , 42,4551‘ (1923); Iiincbley, Ibid., 41,3631’ (1922). factory, located a t Schwetzingen, Baden, Germany, is now oper46-Letter from M. Wirtz, director of t h e Rijks-Instituut voor Brandating a t full capacity and is in a position to give direct service stoffen-Econornie. to any of its clients having European interests. They will be 47-Ostwald and Wolf, Ifollotd-Z., 31, 197 (1922); Steinert, Z.angew. served from this factory, thus eliminating ocean freights. Chem., 35, 553 (1922). Harry S. Calvert, for so many years president and general 48-Strehlenert, C. A , , 17, 2635 (1923); Lindeman, Ibid., 17, 2492 manager of The Elyria Enameled Products Co., has been elected (1923). t o the board of directors of The Pfaudler Company, and has 49-Haanel, Canadian Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, “Facts about been made vice president in charge of the Elyria Enameled Peat” (1924); Ibid., Summary Rept., 574,76 (1922); Stansfield and Nichols, Products Division. Ibid., 574, 39 (1922). The officers of The Pfaudler Company are now as follows: 50-Prnger, Chem. A g e (London), 8, 638 (1923). E. G. MINER, President 51-Midgley and Boyd, I n d . Eng. Chem., 14, 894 (1922); Midgley, W. B. PHETEPLACE, Vice President and Genera1 Manager Ibid., 15, 421 (1923). H. S. CALVERT, Vice President, in charge of Elyria Enameled Products 52--Nathan, Fuel, 2, 249 (1923). Division 53-Mariller and Van Ruymbeke, C-ompt. rend., 175, 588 (1922); R. RANLET,Treasurer Loriette, Chimie & industvie, 9,718 (1923). C. J. STOTHERS, Secretary 54-Rothen and Boutier, I b i d . , 9, 733 (1923); Ormandy and Craven. R. B. KILMER,General Sales Manager J . Inst. Petroleum Tech., 9, 129 (1923).