8 50
I I
r
/
JENNIE FISHERCAWOOD
H y d r e g e n h t c k CononHed011
Institute of American Meat Packers, Chicago, Ill.
4'
40
I
/
/ I
30
1 / I
20
1
10
/'
Breaking Strengths in Grams (&,ounce
0 293s
T
326.0
Jb8.b
4111
453.6
48hl
intervals)
987 5 S l L
62.37
6662 708.8
HE first paper in this series' gave a standard procedure for determining the shortening value of fats by means of
7513
Shortening equivalence by weight of fats in pie crust formulas cannot be directly calculated f r o m fhe relative shortening values determined at one level of fat by means of the shortometer. The amounts of fats which show equal shortening resulk must be determined by cut-and-try methods, but in general they bear a close relationship to the relative shortening values. The relative shortening values of the fats used, as determined by the Bailey shortometer for pie crust, were found to be
pie crust formulas. Would the resulting pie crusts possess the same shortness? Accordingly, the same prime steam lard was used with the same hydrogenated cottonseed oil, the
the shortometer, such that the resulting data meet the requirements of statistical measurements as to-scope and validity of the average figure. I n that study it was shown that, using pie crust wafers and 41 to 44 per cent of fat, five lards, two hydrogenated oils, a hydrogenated lard, an animal stearin-vegetable oil compound, and a n all vegetable oil compound gave shortening values by the Bailey shortometer which coordinated closely with their congealing points. The present paper gives the results of f u r t h e r studies designed to determine: (1) whether the comparative shortening values observed index the relative amounts of the several fats that can be used to produce pie crust of equal tenderness; and (2) whether the comparative shortening values of the different types of fats are affected by the type of flour used. The method used in these experiments was that reported in the former paper. The s t a t i s t i c a l analysis of the data showed that in each instance the frequency distributions (one thousand breaking strength determinations for each fat tested) approached closely the normal or ideal distribution. I n every case t h e m e a n w a s characteristic and representative of its series. I n the earlier studies it was found that refined steam lard was from 17 to 30 per cent higher in shortening power than the other fats tested. The ratio of 100 to 70 for the relative shortening power of lard and hydrogenated cottonseed oil raised the 240 B 3 . 5 32hO 36ab 4111 45%6 4941 5387 58U 6257 6bU 1048 751.3 7950 Bb.3 question of the equivalence of 100 per cent of hyFIGURE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF BREAKING STRENGTHS IN PIE CRUST drogenated cottonseed oil and 70 per cent of lard in MADEWITH 75.4 PER CENTLARD,100 PER CENT HYDROGENATED OIL COTTONSEED 1 Fisher, J. D.,IND.ENC). C F I ~ M25, . . 1171 (1933). 968
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
September, 1934
tests being conducted entirely as heretofore except that the amount of lard used (44 to 100 grams pastry flour) was reduced by 30 per ceni. The results of this study (experiment IV) are as follows:
969
IOC
a
COYPARA.&V.
B R E A K -S T l N D l R D INQ DEVIA-
STRENQTH
TION
Grams 470.9 435.2
78.5 66.0
KIXDOF FAT Refined steam lard Hydrogenated cottonseed oil
COEFFICIENT OF
TIVE
SHORTENVARIATIONIKQ VALCE
% 1 6 . ti 15. 1
100 108
-4 comparison of the distribution of breaking strengths for pie crust made with the two fats is given in Figure 1 . The class intervals in grams are expressed on the abscissa and the percentage of breaking strengths falling below the top level of each succeeding class interval on the ordinate. It is apparent that shortening equivalence by weight cannot be directly calculated from the relative shortening values determined a t one level of fat. Therefore, another experiment was carried out in which the amount of lard used in experiment IV v a s increased in proportion to the difference in shortness-i. e., 100:108. I n other words, 76.4 per cent (33.2 grams) as much lard as hydrogenated cottonseed oil, 100 per cent (44 grams), was used. The results of this qtudy (experiment V) are as follows :
KINDOF FAT Refined steam lard Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 6
Av STAND- COBFFI-COMPARAB R E ~ I - ARD CIENT OF TIVE IKQ DEVIA- VARIA- SHORTEKS T R ~ N Q T H TION TION INQ VALLE Grams % 516.5 517.4
6(
106 9 95 2
20 18
i
100 99 82
The average breaking strengths for the wafers made from 75.4 per cent as much lard as hydrogenated cottonseed oil were practically identical. A comparison of the distribution of breaking strengths is given in Figure 2. General-purpose flour (protein content 10.4 per cent) was used for experiment VI where the pie crust was made with 200 grams general-purpose flour, 118 grams fat, 45 cc. water, and 6 grams salt. The procedure was identical with that previously employed. The results of this experiment are as follows :
7c
a 5d
4c
3(
2c
IC
lui 808p l b ilOJ 2lZ.b 155.1 2927 3402. 3173 4213 4b18 5103 5528 591.4 63x7 40$m.? FIGURE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF BREAKING STRENGTHS IN PIE FLOUR CRUSTMADEWITH GENERAL-PURPOSE
with those in studies made using pastry flour, they are of about the same magnitude and in the same order. Some investigators have used a sweetened cookie as the test product for determining shortening value. Preliminary tests in this laboratory indicate that there may be more than one variable which affects the breaking strength of the sugar cookie wafers made from different types of fats even when the method of procedure is the same for each fat. When equal amounts of different types of fats and sugar are stirred or ~T Av. BREAK-STANDARDC O E F F I C I E COMPARATIVE OF SHORTENINQ creamed together in a mechanical mixer for the same length INQ DEVIAV A R I A T I O ~ VALLES STRENGTH TION of time under identical conditions, the volume of the creamed KINDOF FAT Grams % Refined steam lard 317.8 77.4 24.3 100 mass is not the same for each fat. Thus the amount of air Vegetable oil comincorporated varies. This probably affects the structure of pound 356.4 63.8 17.9 89.2 Hydrogenated lard 395.2 76.5 19.3 80.4 the wafer and introduces a breaking factor other than that of Hydrogenated cottonseed oil 4 112.5 69.5 16.8 77.0 the inherent shortening power of the fat. I n other words, Animal stearin-vegepreliminary results indicate that, in order to use sweetened 69.9 16.3 table oil compound 0428.7 74.1 Hydrogenated cotcookies to test the relative shortening power of fats, it is 77.1 17.6 72.9 tonseed oil 6 435.7 necessary to separate the factor of intrinsic shortening value A comparison of the distribution of breaking strengths for of the fat from the shortening effects of varying creaming the wafers made from the six fats is given in Figure 3. While power, varying mixing, and other possible factors. the figures for comparative shortening value are not identical RECEIVEDJune 4, 1934.
.'1 S. A LEADISGMARKET FOR CRUDEDRUGS.Overseas trade in crude drugs of vegetable origin has notably increased, both in value and quantity since the beginning of the year, indicating more activity in the production of medicinals, according to the Department of Commerce. The United States leads all other countries in the manufacture of medicines, producing approximately one-third the total world output, and more than double that of Germany, the second largest producer. Despite outstanding advances made with synthetic medicinals in recent years, drugs of vegetable origin continue t o maintain a dominant position, not only in the manufacture of proprietary medicines and on the prescription counter, but as the basis of home-made remedies. Almost every state in the union and every foreign country contributes raw materials for the botanical drug grinder. In 1931 twenty-three establishments were engaged solely in grinding
drugs of vegetable origin, and during that year the output was valued at 89,160,000. Imports into the United States of crude vegetable drugs during the first four months of the year were valued at $2,057,000, a figure double that of the corresponding period of last year. Licorice root ranked first and totaled 27,670,000 pounds, valued at $428,000, compared with 10,230,000 pounds, valued a t $220,000, for the 1933 period. While licorice is classed as a crude drug and is used extensively in medicinals, approximately 90 per cent goes into the manufacture of chewing tobacco, and considerable quantities serve as flavoring for candies and gums. The United States is also an exporter of drugs of vegetable origin, Exports during the first four months of the year were valued at $273,000, an increase of almost 60 per cent over the 1933 period.
