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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
reduction in toxicity was noted. With this knowledge a t hand, it was possible to can successfully moist or dry readymixed red squill r a t baits with no diminution in their toxicity. A preliminary report on canned rat baits was made in 1932 ( 2 ) . Further experience with canned baits has fully justified the writers’ claims for the suitability of such readymixed, preserved baits in rat eradication campaigns. They have been given extensive field trials for 3 years. Approximately three hundred thousand half-pound cans of bait were distributed to farmers and others by the U. S. Biological Survey and by state and county agricultural extension services. Some of the results of these rat campaigns are summarized in Table V, compiled by E. M. Mills, director of Rodent Control in the Northeast. These data are largely self-explanatory. The canned baits were all prepared under supervision a t a small cannery a t Barnstable, Mass. Fortyone of the campaigns were repeats. The fresh bait distributed in 1930-31 was prepared by the farmers themselves by adding 10 per cent by weight of dry red squill powder to chopped meat. There is no evidence that the toxicity of these canned baits decreased .significantly over a 2-year period of storage. Canned ready-mixed baits are easy to handle, transport, and use, are always fresh, well-mixed, and of standardized toxicity.
VOL. 27, NO. 11
They are available when needed and keep for a t least a year and probably longer. The baits consist of the foods best liked by rats, usually meat, fish, and cereals. The use of canned baits also eliminates the necessity of the user having to mix his own bait with much inconvenience and lack of equipment. The use of the canned baits has definitely met with general public approval.
Acknowledgment The writers are deeply indebted to E. M. Mills, James Silver, and J. C. Munch of the U. S. Biological Survey for many helpful suggestions and for the use of their extensive r a t eradication campaign data for 1931 to 1933.
Literature Cited (1) Claremont, C. L., SnaZyst, 47, 60-7 (1922). (2) Mills, E. M., and Fellers, C. R., Canning Age, 13,200-20 (1932).
(3) Munch, J. C.,Silver, J., and Horn, E. E., U. S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bull. 134 (1929). (4) Silver, J., U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’BuZZ. 1533 (1927).
RECEIVED X a y 23, 1935. Presented before the Division of Agricultural and Food Chemistry a t the 89th Meeting of the American ChemicalSociety, New York, N. Y . , April 22 to 26, 1935.
Stimulating Employees to Invent J
JOSEPH RO S SJlAK United States Patent Office, Washington, D. C.
HE impressive results produced by organized research particularly during the last five years have convinced most industrial executives that a thoroughly planned research program is just as important as a good sales campaign. Many officials of large companies are realizing that better returns on the investment can be made by not confining themselves strictly to a single product or enterprise and that collateral manufacturing activities are highly desirable from the economic, social, and business viewpoints. Many large corporations are therefore manufacturing today many diverse products and are intensely interested in creating and developing new products through research. Research organized on a large scale must be carried out by employees assigned to work on specific problems. But no matter how well research departments may be conducted, the creative work must necessarily be done by individuals in the organization. The policies which such organizations follow in order t o stimulate their employees to think creatively and invent are therefore of vital importance. I n order to determine the actual policies followed today, information was obtained from 233 large companies concerning the active measures they take to stimulate inventing by their employees; what incentives and rewards they offer; to what extent employees are compelled to assign their inventions in advance by contract.
T
Active Measure to Stimulate Inventing
READING ROOMIN THE SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY, U. S. PATENTOFFICE
It was found that eighty-nine companies took no active measures to stimulate inventing by employees, and Uty-five companies depended entirely on their engineering or research departments. Most of these companies, however, regarded promotion, increase in salary, personal prestige, and recognition as important and sufficient incentives. The attitude taken by the companies in regard to stimu1
Present address, Marathon Paper Mills Company, Rothschild, Wis.
lating inventing appears t o depend a good deal upon the products which they manufacture as well as upon t h e progressiveness of the executives. A company producing a standard article having a steady demand is little interested in receiving suggestions from employees. This is particularly true of the older and well-established industries where machines and methods have been thoroughly standardized. The typical attitude in such companies is that dreamers of new inventions make poor workers. One company official stated: “ I n general, no measures are taken t o stimulate and encourage inventing by employees other than those of the executive and engineering staffs, on the theory t h a t overmuch dreaming makes a poor workm a n and t h a t , if a man is a real inventor, it will creep out’ spontaneously.” Another company official stated: When inventing is encouraged generally among the employees of a manufacturing establishment and is stimulated by rewards of money and notoriety in the plant, the employees become critical of everything connected with the establishment, and most of them, being in total ignorance of the why and the wherefore of the existing order of things, suggest changing everything in and about the place. This takes their minds off their duties. Standardized products are improved and automatically kept up to date by minute improvements and refinements in details of structure and of manufacture, and also by excellence of workmanship. Such companies have engineering departments chiefly for maintenance and repair of the operating plant. Although they have the facilities as well as potential fields in which to make innovations, they often rest heavily upon their commercial laurels and remain satisfied in their industrial ruts unt’il rudely awakened by a depression or a new competitor who is displacing their market with a better product. On the other hand, we have a large number of companies who have found b y experience that it is best not to encourage inventing by all the employees but to confine such activities to employees hired for this sole purpose. These companies usually have a well-organized research or engineering staff to handle all the technical problems in a systematic and orderly manner. The following are typical comments: Our engineers and research workers are made to understand that they are expected to give their best efforts t o their jobs, as their future advancement with the company will depend to a large extent on how well they handle each job that is put up to them. A large portion of the inventions made by our engineers are the result of their good work in solving new problems which are presented either in connection with our own work or in connection with the requirements of our customers. . * * No measures are taken to stimulate inventions by our employees as a group. Members of the Research Department and individuals responsible for any merchandising function are, however, made to realize that successful inventing adds to their value on their job.
...
In our Research Department one day a month is set aside so that the research men can work exclusively on their own ideas or inventions. One day a month is also set aside in our Research Department to study other industries with a view of utilizing some of the pract,ices, products, and processes in our own industry to the industry being studied. Occasional letters are sent to our mills calling at,tention to the desirability of submitting new ideas which might be helpful to the company.
...
Stimulation and encouragement for inventing are afforded our employees by the provision of adequate facilities for research work, such as a modern type of laboratory, equipment, and libraries. It is our belief that pleasant, cheerful surroundings are helpful to the production of new ideas.
...
STACKS OF CL.4SSIFIED
u. s.
PATESTS I S THE S E l n C H
U. S. PATENTOFFICE
ROOM,
It is our policy to limit active stimulation and encouragement of invention to the executive and engineering staff by specific assignment of interesting problems. Stimulation and encouragement are by active, vigorous, and strong financing of experimentation with new devices and their placement in commercial production a t the earliest possible stage of their reduction to practice.
**. Our research and development work is placed in the hands of men employed for that specific purpose. Therefore, it is their duty to improve our product. Consequently, we do not offer a bonus to stimulate inventions by the employees of our hlanufacturing Department. In most of our plants, the regular shop employee may know little about the operation of the complete machine when it is assembled. Therefore, we find it necessary to employ personnel whose specific duty is t o devise new machines to meet changing conditions and improve current machines to meet best the user’s requirements.
**. We maintain two sizable, well-equipped, model development departments whose duty it is to produce new goods that are sanctioned or requested by our Sales Departments. The Sales Departments in turn keep in touch with the agents in the field who, of course, are in close contact with buyers all over the world. Thus our efforts are confined to items that are reasonably certain of success. Practically all of our inventions come from men specifically hired for that purpose or from engineers or executives who are not directly awarded for them. The employees at large have been responFible for very few worthwhile inventions, although we maintain a suggestion box system with direct awards based on the value of the suggestions. The hope of advancement is of course always a stimulant to those outside t’he model departments.
*..
We take no active measures to stimulate and encourage invention among our employees in general. We have a few key men who are well paid and thoroughly conversant with the art regarding our business, and whose duty it is t o develop new and improved devices. Certain of our men devote all of their time to the developing of new inventions. We have found this method more satisfactory than relying upon our general employees or outsidere for ideas. The employees of the Engineering and of the Patent Depart-. ments are stimulated and encouraged t o make inventions in the following manner: (a) All patents issuing in the United States. Canada, and the major European countries along lines in which we are interested are called to the employees’ attention; ( b ) a well-equipped library is maintained with a librarian in charge who calls t o the attention of the various employees interested all publications and journal articles deemed to be of interest; ( c ) 1381
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T. A . E D I S O N . Eleotrio-Lamp. No. 223.898.
Patented Jan. 27, 1880.
VOL. 27, NO. 1 L
Some companies also encourage their technical employees t o attend scientific and technical courses in schools and colleges in order t o acquire the technical background necessary for their special work. A11 educational efforts taken fit the employee better for his job and may also prove valuable in stimulating inventions by giving him a broader view of his specific industry, its needs, and problems.
Rewards and Other Incentives The methods used in rewarding employees for valuable suggestions and inventions vary greatly. The following table summarizes the replies made by the companies giving specific data on the question: No reward Cash reward, bonus, ,etc. Promotion: increase in salary Share in profits Royalty basis
memberships in various of the scientific and learned societies are taken out for the key men and attendance a t the meetings is encouraged. There are exceptions t o t h e practice followed by many companies in relying entirely upon their engineering or research departments for their inventions. Thus one company official writes:
It is the conception of the directors of this company that the entire staff constitutes the staff of the Research Department and that consequently everyone is endeavoring to promote better methods or products. This conception of research is particularly desirable and almost essentia! in this industry because of the intricate character of many of its operations and t,he high degree of personal skill entering into the individual workman's contribution. If there was any other conception than the one which is set forth above, it would be exceedingly difficult certainly and impossible probably to perfect some of t'he work which has been done. The following policy followed by another company has been effective: The men assigned to a particular division of the company constitute a complete unit. They are thk engineers, chemists, foremen, and the workmen. These men are encouraged to join the various technical societies having to do with their particular occupation, and, in the event they are willing to join, then the subscriptions, dues, etc., are paid for by the company. It is furthermore the duty of the various men to keep in touch with developments, both in this country and abroad, on anything having to do with their particular field of work and to devise new methods for development and manufacture. Again, the company has at various times niaint'ained contests among the different men in the plants looking toward the development and betterment of their manufacturing processes, and when a new process is developed as a result of such a contest a very substantial reward is offered. We have for years maintained a policy of sending various employees of the company abroad for a period of study and observation in their particular department. In the past these trips have been very fruitful and we have derived valuable information from these contacts.
No. of Companies 88
66 31
7 9
The summary of the replies indicates that a large proportion of the companies offers no direct reward whatsoever for inventions made by employees. This is especially true of those companies which engage technically trained persons for the sole purpose of iniproving their product's or developing nely ones. It is cust'omary for such employees to sign employment contracts whereby they assign in advance all rights to any inventions they may make during the period of employment. Such contracts are generally enforceable in the court's since they are not contrary to public policy. The general attitude taken by employers in such cases is that the stipulated salary is a n adequate reward for the inventive work of the employee, and, where inventions are made which prove to be extremely valuable, suitable rewards may be made by increase in salary and promotions within the organization. Many companies, however, reward workers who are not ordinarily expected t o invent or are under no d u t y t o invent, by some cash or bonus payment, ranging from one dollar to several thousand and depending upon the value and importance of the ideas submitted. One company pays $25 for every suggestion adopted. Another pays $50 for each invention made. One company reported a payment of %5000' to an employee. Many companies pay the inventor 10 per cent of the first year's savings produced by his invention. One company paid the inventor 1 per cent of the net sales of the new article. The rewards made in one suggestion system are as follows: Improvement in product, or new product Reduction in costs of manufacture Of intangible value, such as reduction of accident and fire hazards, conveniences, etc.
$ 25.00
IO.00 5.00
Additional awards for suggestions of unusual merit are: .idditional award each time a n employee has five accepted suggestions-i. e., fifth, tenth, fifteenth, etc., until further notice Best suggestion each year Second best suggestion each year Third best suggestion each year Any suggestion on which a patent is obtained and aszigned to the company
$
10.00 100.00 50.00 25.00 100.00.
One company rewards its inventors by filing patent applications for any inventions developed by the employee. Where the improvement is put into immediate use hy t h e company and a saving or benefit is derived thereby, the employee shares a minimum of 5 per cent of the net profits for a t least the first three years. Where the invention is the product of several employees resulting in a joint invention the award is prorated as determined by the award committee. The following are some of the diverse views expressed by the company officials in regard to rewards: Since an employee's ingenuity is evidenced by the number of patents taken out in his name, this is considered one of the
NO\ EMBER, 1935
IXDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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The incentive offered to our men is that each of them is doing his part in the work of a large organization to advance its income capacity, and his salary is adjusted from time to time in accordance with the income of the company. We rarely give a man a reward as such because most, of the accomplishments are what he is being paid for doing.
..*
We have no definite plan of rewarding employees for inventions. We have all along been mindful of the contributions made by the rank and file of employees in this connection, and special benefits t o them have been realized in some manner in most instances. Those employed expressly to make improvements, or a substantial portion of whose time is devoted to this nature of work are, of course, not considered in this connection as the salary paid them is their reward.
...
We have two divisions among our employees. The first division includes the men who receive higher salaries, many of whom come under the head of “professional inventors.” This also includes men who are not expected to do any inventing, but who are in particularly favorable Courtesy, Th? Chemist Dositions to encourage inventions. We do not A I R VIE\\ OF D E P ~ R T M E OFYC TO Y \ I E R C E BUILDIVG \\-HIGH HOCSEST H E bffer any rewards cr ;articular incentive to this PATENT OFFICE group. With our draftsmen, road men, and all who might come under the genera[ heading of skilled mechanics, we give an award of $50 for every pat,ent applicaqualifications for promotion and no other bonus or reward is tion filed in one of their names. In many cases this is more than offered as an incentive for invention. the invention is v,-orth, but we probably gain in the end.
...
No rewards or particular incentives are offered for inventions, but it is generally understood that the general policy of the company is to reward employees who make valuable inventions by suitable salary adjustments.
...
The inventor’s reward is his salary. Inventive ability is a factor in determining salarie. and salary changes.
* * * We have found, through experience, that the giving of substantial monetary rewards, in the form of bonuses and the like, is conducive to jealousy among the engineering staff. For this reason we pap only the nominal sum of $1.00 upon assignment of each patent application. I t is a fact well known to our employees, however, that those n.ho have been most active in inventing have received substantial salary increases and have been retained on the pay roll throughout the depression.
.*.
The chief reward offered is monetary and this usually amounts In some instances it has run as high as an increase in salary of 100 per cent. Furthermore, the patents taken out in the name of the employee and assigned to the company are always publicized, and the employee is given an opportunity to establish himself in the particular field of his invention by appearing before different technical societies, conventions, etc., and offering papers upon his work. to a very substantial sum.
..*
From time to time, outstanding cases have received moderate bonuses which take into consideration the nature of the employment, rate of pay, and the nature and value of the improvement.
* * . (UO YOdsl.)
0. M. HALL. MANUFAOTDBE OF ALUMINIUM
NO.400,865, 0
.
We offer no reward or other incentives, inasmuch as the particular work in which we are engaged depends so much upon the knowledge gained from one’s associates and one’s fellows that it is rather difficult t’o assign a value to a device. t
*
*
Xo definite rewards or other incentives are held out, to any employee, but should an employee make some ouhtanding invention of considerable value to the corporation, the manager of the plant where such employee is employed, in all probability, will recognize t,he same by increasing his salary or recommending him for a bonus. 0
.
.
We have no definite arrangement for rewards to inventors. Bdvancement in salary naturally results to the successful inventor. In the past bonuses weregiven in many cases but, this policy has been abandoned during the recent period of lessened. business activity. 0 - 0
Regarding rewards, these vary in amount, depending upon the suggestion. In most cases they vary from $5.00 to $100.00, possibly in exceptional cases $250.00, and these rewards are for regular employees. Persons whose duty it is to make suggestions or think of inventions receive no rewards for their ideas except in the way of salary increases, based on the usefulness of the invention. ..t
Patentedbpr. 2, 1889.
0
- +
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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We endeavor to reward further our employees for inventions by allowing them to acquire stock a t a reasonable basis in organizations formed for the purpose of commercializing the inventions after the inventions have been proved successful both technically and financially on a semi-commercial or commercial scale.
* * * The matter of reward is most difficult and may be left to adjustment “after the event,” in each particular instance. *.*
Our reward is a flat bonus, or 1 per cent of the net sales of the article sold to the trade.
..*
No specific rewards or similar incentives are offered employees to stimulate inventing. In the case of the designing engineers, whose employment is for the purpose of improving present machines and developing new ones, the rate of compensation reflects the activity of the engineers in making new and improvement inventions. In the case of other employees, not employed for the purpose of improving the company’s products, different methods of rewarding the exercise of inventive powers in the company’s behalf have been employed, depending upon circumstances. In some cases, cash payments have been made; in others, patents have been obtained without charge and all rights except shop rights have been enjoyed by the inventors. In some cases, tanible assistance in making a profit on inventions of this character as been rendered.
f
* * *
No definite rewards, other than advancement in position or salary as opportunity permits, are held out. However, in normal times, interest in the company and recognition of unusual merit are covered by awards of stock of an entirely discretionary nature. * * * For the best suggestions submitted by employees other than mechanical inventions of members of the Engineering Department, a reward of $50.00 is made each month. Members of the Engineering Department are expected to make contributions from time to time in the way of inventions, and it is understood that they will be rewarded by raises in salary dependent upon the merits of the inventions. The Engineering Department in general is divided into a research group and a design group. I t usually happens that the men in the research section are not as fruitful in inventionszas members of the design section. On the other hand the data secured by the research section is of great assistance to members of the design group, since it is usually the case that, where a problem is presented and clearly defined, the good designer can produce a solution. We have found it to be very u n d e s i r a b l e t o hold forth a n y c a s h rewards to members of the Engineering Department for work done in the line for which they are hired, since the valuation to be placed upon an idea is quite apt to be modified after it has gone through B sufficient development period t o make it suitable for p r o d u c tion. Many times we h a v e been q u i t e enthusiastic over ideas and after many months of intensive development work have discarded them in favor of a later idea, or because of some latent defect in t h e idea which a p p e a r e d only a f t e r considerable d e v e l o p m e n t work was done.
* * *
It is the company’s policy in the case of those employed to invent, to adjust their compensation in accordance with their contributions to the company’s welfare; and in the case of those who are not employed specifically to invent, to recognize to the full their legal rights, and in those cases where inventions are not purchased outright and shop rights only are taken, to aid the inventors by prosecution of their applications without charge, and to furnish them such aid as may be reasonably possible in realizing on their patents when these are obtained.
* * * We believe, in many institutions, ideas are held back ’by employees through lack of confidence in the executives. We believe that honest and fair dealing with employees inspires confidence and cooperation that cannot be secured through any system of prizes or rules.
* * *
We find that most of our inventions come from employees who are engaged in the design of our product and who are expected to develop new inventions. We have had a shop suggestion system in effect for some time by which employees are paid for good suggestions, and while some of these suggestions do relate to new ideas, we have never been successful in getting a real inventive idea from this source. We have often considered a bonus system, but it is quite difficult to evaluate a n invention a t the time it is made.
* * *
It has been our practice to purchase from inventor-employees their inventions after the Patent Office has indicated that claims having a potential value are allowable. We do not ask our employees t o sign a contract to assign their inventions. On the contrary many employee-inventions have been sold to others with the full knowledge of our officials. It is my opinion based on more than fifty years practice, principally for corporations, that no matter what system is adopted the heads of engineering and research sections will claim a very large percentage of the inventions made in the company as their own. I believe it is more fair to the employer to hire a man on contract a t a fair salary and let him work for the employer rather than for the rewards dealt out by a patent plan. There is no doubt in my mind that thousands of patents have been issued to employees of corporations that never would have been issued if the inventor had been permitted to own the alleged invention and had been compelled to pay for prosecuting the applications.
..*
Inventions which consist of changes in equipment, processing, tooling, combination of operations, etc., are given recognition through special approval direct to the employee by the management. Inventions which are patented and which originate from employees &her than those on the engineering staff, are given a monetary reward. T h e a m o u n t of the r e w a r d is b a s e d o n the importance of the invention and t h e person r e c e i v i n g i t . For members of the engineering staff, part of whose duties is t o develop new ideas, no additional recognition is given other than to see that the real origin a t o r of the idea receives due credit; of course, his standing in the organizat,ion takes into consideration the success he has had in bringing out worthwhile ideas.
* * *
Courtesy, The Chemist
MAIN LOBBY,PATENT OFFICE
We h a v e a l w a y s taken the stand that it is a part of the employees’ obligation t D
the company for the wage or salary received that any invention rightfully belongs to the company. We r e a l i z e this point has been the means of considerable controversy but n e are glad to say that our employees have confidence in the ability of officials of the company to recognize m e r i t and inventive talent and to compensate them for it satisfactorily. We have never had any trouble in this respect and have had OCCBsion many times to pay sunis to our employees either in a.n outright manner or by w3,y of an increase in income.
SOME NOTABLE AMERICANCHEMIC.4L IXVENTORS INVEXTION INVENTO~ Silicon carbide in electric furAcheson, Edward G. nace; graphite Babbitt metal Babbitt, Isaao Bakelite Baekeland, Leo H. Evaporated milk Borden, Gail Dry cells; cellulose products Burgess, Charles F. Petroleum cracking a t high Burton, William M. temperature and pressurc Electrolytic alkali Castner, Hamilton Y. Vaseline Chesebrough, Robert A. Tungsten filament Coolidge, William D. Electrical precipitation Cottrell, Frederick G. Dubbs, Carbon Petroleum Petroleum cracking with clean circulation Carbon fiiament; nickel storage Edison, Thomas -4. battery Petroleum cracking Egloff,Gustav Electrodeposition of chromium Fink, Colin G. and tungsten Sulfur mining Frasch, Herman Dry-air blast for iron manuGayley, James facture Rubber vulcanization Goodyear, Charles Electrolytic aluminum Hall, Charles frf. Carburizing steel Harvey, Hayward A. Mercury-vapor lamp Hewitt, Peter C. Celluloid Hyatt, John W. Reinforced concrete Hyatt, Thaddeus Halftone process Ives, Frederic E. Atomic hydrogen welding Langmuir, Irving Aluminum chloride catalyst in Mciltee, Almer M. oil cracking Ethyl gasoline; organic reMidgley, Thomas, Jr. frigerants Synthetic resins Redman, Lawrence V. Titanium steel Rossi, A. J. Chrome tanning process Schulta, Augustus Vacuum oil distillation Schulze, John E. Sheppard, S. E., and Electrodeposition of rubber Eberlin, L. W. Sulfite pulp process Tilghman, B. C. Electric furnace abrasives Tone, Frank J. Hydrolysis of oils and fats by Twitchell, Ernest organic sulfo acids Nickel plating Weston, Edward Zinc white process Wetherill, Samuel Calcium carbide by electric Willson, Thomas L.
The only reward received by the inventor is the pers o n a 1 satisfaction or honor which comes to him by having a development or invention of his turn out to be a success. Of course, in that event, he will probably eventually have his salary raised o r b e g i v e n a position of greater responsibility. Such r e w R r d s , however, are not directly traceable to a single invention but usually come as the broader, favorable impression of the man and his work comes to the attention of t h e department head or higher official. b
b
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INDUSTRIhL AND ENGINEERING
