Published on Web 11/10/2004
Structure and Dynamics of a Molecular Hydrogel Derived from a Tripodal Cholamide Samrat Mukhopadhyay,† Uday Maitra,*,† Ira,‡ Guruswamy Krishnamoorthy,‡ Judith Schmidt,¶ and Yeshayahu Talmon¶ Contribution from the Department of Organic Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012 India, Department of Chemical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai 400 005, India, and Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel Received June 1, 2004; E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: Tripodal cholamide 1 is a supergelator of aqueous fluids. A variety of physical techniques, including cryo-transmission electron microscopy (TEM), circular dichroism (CD), steady-state fluorescence, timeresolved fluorescence, and dynamic light-scattering, were employed to understand the structure and dynamics of the gel. Fluorescent probes [ANS (8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid) and pyrene] reported two critical aggregation concentrations (CAC1 and CAC2) of 1 in predominantly aqueous media, with the minimum gel concentration (MGC) being close to CAC2. Fluorescence lifetime measurements with pyrene revealed ineffective quenching of pyrene fluorescence by oxygen, possibly caused by slower Brownian diffusion due to the enhanced viscosity in the gel phase. The study of the gelation kinetics by monitoring the ultrafast dynamics of ANS revealed a progressive increase in the aggregate size and the microviscosity of the aqueous pool encompassed by the self-assembled fibrillar network (SAFIN) during the gelation. The striking difference between microviscosity and bulk (macroscopic) viscosity of the gel is also discussed.
1. Introduction
The formation of gels in water has been well documented with polymers and biopolymers.1 Such materials are known as hydrogels or aqueous gels. Gelation with this class of molecules is believed to occur by chemical and/or physical cross-linking of polymeric chains, leading to the formation of a highly intertwined three-dimensional network, which restrains water molecules by surface tensional forces. When the driving forces for gelation involve molecular self-assembly through noncovalent physical forces, the resulting hydrogels are termed as physical gels or molecular gels.2 The past decade has witnessed a rapid growth in this area of nonpolymeric gels. Compared to organogels,3 reports on molecular hydrogels have been scarce but have been rapidly increasing in recent years.4 A wide variety of molecular species involving amino acid derivatives,5 polypep† ‡ ¶
Indian Institute of Science. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Technion-Israel Institute of Technology.
(1) (a) Terech, P. Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science; Marcel Dekker: New York, 2002; pp 2299-2319. (b) Guenet J. M. ThermoreVersible Gelation of Polymers and Biopolymers; Academic Press: New York, 1992. (2) Molecular Gels; Terech, P., Wiess, R. G., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: The Netherlands, 2004. (3) For recent reviews on organogels, see: (a) Terech, P.; Weiss, R. G. Chem. ReV. 1997, 97, 3133. (b) van Esch, J. H.; Feringa, B. L. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2000, 39, 2263. (c) Abdallah, D. J.; Weiss, R. G. AdV. Mater. 2000, 12, 1237. (d) See ref 2. (4) (a) Bhattacharya, S.; Maitra, U.; Mukhopadhyay, S.; Srivastava, A. In Molecular Gels; Terech, P., Wiess, R. G., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: The Netherlands, 2004. (b) Estroff, L. A.; Hamilton, A. D. Chem. ReV. 2004, 104, 1201. 10.1021/ja046788t CCC: $27.50 © 2004 American Chemical Society
tides,6 carbohydrate derivatives,7 gemini surfactants/bolaamphiphiles,8 bile acids,9 and others10 have been shown to act as gelators of aqueous fluids. These hydrogels are of great (5) (a) Imae, T.; Takahashi, Y.; Muramatsu, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 3414. (b) Fuhrhop, J.-H.; Spiroski, D.; Boettcher, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 115, 1600. (c) Menger, F. M.; Caran, K. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 11679. (d) Estroff, L. A.; Hamilton, A. D. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2000, 39, 3447. (e) Frkanec, L.; Jokic, M.; Makarevic, J.; Wolsperger, K.; Zˇ inic, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 9716. (f) Suzuki, M.; Yumoto, M.; Kimura, M.; Shirai, H.; Hanabusa, K. Chem. Commun. 2002, 884. (g) Heeres, A.; van der Pol, C.; Stuart, M.; Friggeri, A.; Feringa, B. L.; van Esch, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 14252. (h) Suzuki, M.; Yumoto, M.; Kimura, M.; Shirai, H.; Hanabusa, K. Chem.sEur. J. 2003, 9, 348. (i) van Bommel, K. J. C.; van der Pol, C.; Muizebelt, I.; Friggeri, A.; Heeres, A.; Meetsma, A.; Feringa, B. L.; van Esch, J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2004, 43, 1663. (6) (a) Hartgerink, J. D.; Beniash, E.; Stupp, S. I. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2002, 99, 5133. (b) Aggeli, A.; Bell, M.; Boden, N.; Keen, J. N.; Knowles, P. F.; McLeish, T. C. B.; Pitkeathly, M.; Radford, S. E. Nature 1997, 386, 259. (c) Collier, J. H.; Hu, B.-H.; Ruberti, J. W.; Zhang, J.; Shum, P.; Thompson, D. H.; Messersmith, P. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 9463. (d) Xing, B.; Yu, C.-W.; Chow, K.-H.; Ho, P.-L.; Fu, D.; Xu, B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 14846. (e) Schneider, J. P.; Pochan, D. J.; Ozbas, B.; Rajagopal, K.; Pakstis, L.; Kretsinger, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 15030. (f) Pochan, D. J.; Schneider, J. P.; Kretsinger, J.; Ozbas, B.; Rajagopal, K.; Haines, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 11802. (g) Claussen, R. C.; Rabatic, B. M.; Stupp, S. I. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 12680. (7) (a) Pfannemuller, B.; Welte, W. Chem. Phys. Lipids 1985, 37, 227. (b) Furhorp, J.-H.; Schnieder, P.; Rosenberg, J.; Boekema, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1987, 109, 3387. (c) Bhattacharya, S.; Acharya, S. N. G. Chem. Mater. 1999, 11, 3504. (d) Kobayashi, H.; Friggeri, A.; Koumoto, K.; Amaike, M.; Shinkai, S.; Reinhoudt, D. N. Org. Lett. 2002, 4, 1423. (e) Jung, J. H.; Shinkai, S.; Shimizu, T. Chem.sEur. J. 2002, 8, 2684. (f) Kiyonaka, S.; Shinkai, S.; Hamachi, I. Chem.sEur. J. 2003, 9, 976. (8) (a) Newkome, G. R.; Baker, G. R.; Arai, S.; Saunders, M. J.; Russo, P. S.; Theriot, K. J.; Moorefield, C. N.; Rogers, L. E.; Miller, J. E.; Lieux, T. R.; Murray, M. E.; Phillips, B.; Pascal, L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 8458. (b) Oda, R.; Huc, I.; Candau, S. J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 1998, 37, 2689. (c) Iwaura, R.; Yoshida, K.; Masuda, M.; Yase, K.; Shimizu, T. Chem. Mater. 2002, 14, 3047. (d) Menger, F. M.; Peresypkin, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 5340. J. AM. CHEM. SOC. 2004, 126, 15905-15914
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ARTICLES Chart 1
plication of such hydrogels in the template-directed preparation of nanotubes of inorganic oxides and sulfates has also been reported.16 Herein, we disclose the synthetic protocols and detailed studies on the aggregation behavior of tripodal cholamide 1, deoxycholamide 2, and their monomeric analogues, 3 and 4 (Chart 1). A combination of microscopic and spectroscopic techniques was used to understand the structure and dynamics of gels. Also, we provide insights into the time course of the gelation process using a double-kinetic experiment. 2. Results
2.1. Synthesis. The tripodal bile acid derivatives (nonahydroxy 1 and hexahydroxy 2) were prepared in three steps from cholic and deoxycholic acid, respectively (Scheme 1). FormylScheme 1 a
importance due to the fact that they are potential materials for biomedical applications, such as drug-delivery systems, tissue engineering, semi-wet biomaterials for protein microarray, and so forth.11 Recently, the advantages of using the molecular hydrogels over traditional polymeric hydrogels have been reviewed.12 In addition to potential applications, gels are materials with intriguing features owing to the coexistence of solid (the networked fibrous structure) and liquid (entrapped solvent molecules) phases. These gels are viscoelastic materials since they display properties of both solids (elasticity) and liquids (viscosity).13 Structural analysis of these materials is not straightforward since they do not lend themselves to studies at atomic resolutions. Applications of a variety of physical techniques are required to gain insights into the complex nature of the gel phase.2-4 We have recently described the efficient gelation ability of a novel tripodal cholamide in aqueous media.14 The gel formation was associated with the formation of hydrophobic pockets in a predominantly aqueous medium. The rotational dynamics of polarity-sensitive organic dyes partitioned in the hydrophobic region and in the aqueous phase of the gel was determined using the picosecond time-resolved fluorescence method.15 The ap(9) (a) Schryver, S. B. R. Soc. Proc., Ser. B 1914, 87, 366. (b) Schryver, S. B. R. Soc. Proc., Ser. B 1916, 89, 361. (c) Sobotka, H.; Czeczowiczka, N. J. Colloid Sci. 1958, 13, 188. (d) Rich, A.; Blow, D. M. Nature 1958, 182, 423. (e) Blow, D. M.; Rich, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1960, 82, 3566. (f) Igimi, H.; Carey, M. J. Lipid Res. 1980, 21, 72. (g) Terech, P.; Smith, W. G.; Weiss, R. G. J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1996, 92, 3157. (h) Jover, A.; Meijide, F.; Nu´n˜ez, E. R.; Tato, J. V. Langmuir 1996, 12, 1789. (i) Lopez, F.; Samseth, J.; Mortensen, K.; Rosenqvist, E.; Rouch, J. Langmuir 1996, 12, 6188. (10) (a) Fuhrhop, J.-H.; Demoulin, C.; Rosenberg, J.; Boettcher, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 2827. (b) Haines, S. R.; Harrison, R. G. Chem. Commun. 2002, 2846. (c) Marmillon, C.; Gauffre, F.; Gulik-Krzywicki, T.; Loup, C.; Caminade, A.-M.; Majoral, J.-P.; Vors, J.-P.; Rump, E. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 2626. (d) Park, S. M.; Lee, Y. S.; Kim, B. H. Chem. Commun. 2003, 2912. (11) (a) Lee, K. Y.; Moony, D. J. Chem. ReV. 2001, 101, 1869. (b) Miyata, T.; Uragami, T.; Nakamae, K. AdV. Drug DeliVery ReV. 2002, 54, 79. (c) Kiyonaka, S.; Sada, K.; Yoshimura, I.; Shinkai, S.; Kato, N.; Hamachi, I. Nat. Mater. 2004, 3, 58. (12) Tiller, J. C. Angew Chem., Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 3072. (13) Ross-Murphy, S. B. Physical Techniques for the Study of Food Biopolymers; Blackie: London, 1994. (14) Maitra, U.; Mukhopadhyay, S.; Sarkar, A.; Rao, P.; Indi, S. S. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 2281. 15906 J. AM. CHEM. SOC.
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a (a) HCO H, rt, 5 h. (b) DCC-DMAP/N[CH CH NH ] in DCM, 12 2 2 2 2 3 h. (c) DCC-DMAP/Me2NCH2CH2NH2 in DCM, 5 h. (d) With 5% KOHMeOH.
protected bile acids were coupled with tren to obtain the tripodal architecture. In the next step, the formyl groups were cleaved to obtain the free hydroxy tripodal bile acid derivatives. N,NDimethyl(ethylenediamine) was used to obtain monomeric analogues. 2.2. Behavior in Aqueous Media. Nonahydroxy 1 and hexahydroxy 2 were insoluble in water. The protonated salts, such as 1‚HCl and 2‚HCl, have limited solubility in water. However, upon the addition of a small amount (5-20%) of organic cosolvents (e.g., EtOH, MeOH, CH3CN, DMSO, DMF, and acetone), clear solutions were obtained. Compound 1 formed a transparent gel (Figure 1A) from such solutions in a few minutes, but 2 failed to form a gel under all of the conditions we studied. Monomeric analogues (3 and 4) also did not act as gelators of aqueous fluids. They formed either precipitates or clear solutions depending on the concentration of the compound and the composition of the cosolvents. The “best” gels (transparent and thermally stable) were obtained in acetic acid(15) Mukhopadhyay, S.; Ira; Krishnamoorthy, G.; Maitra, U. J. Phys. Chem. B. 2003, 107, 2189. (16) Gundiah, G.; Mukhopadhyay, S.; Tumkurkar, U. G.; Govindaraj, A.; Maitra, U.; Rao, C. N. R. J. Mater. Chem. 2003, 13, 2118.
Molecular Hydrogel from a Tripodal Cholamide
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Figure 1. (A) Transparent gel: [1] ) 9 mM in 20% AcOH-H2O. (B) Luminescent gel: [1] ) 5 mM and [ANS] ) 30 µM.
Figure 3. CD spectra of the gel at 25 °C (a) and of the sol at 75 °C (b) from 1‚HCl (3.0 mM in 20% EtOH-water). The inset shows the variable temperature CD of the gel (heating and cooling cycle).
Figure 2. Cryo-TEM images of the gel (0.75 mM) in 20% AcOH-water at two different magnifications. Bars represent 100 nm (a) and 50 nm (b). Table 1. Minimum Gel Concentrations (MGC) of 1 as a Function of Solvent Composition at Room Temperature solvent composition (v/v)
MGC (mM)
20% AcOH-water 1% ACOH-water 0.05% AcOH-water 0.01% AcOH-water
0.75 0.60 0.30 0.15
water systems ranging from 0.01 to 30% AcOH in water, depending on the gelator concentration (Table 1). These gels were thermoreversible and thixotropic in nature, and they were stable for more than 3 years when kept in sealed tubes. Gels were formed under remarkably low concentrations of the gelator. The minimum gel concentration was as low as 0.15 mM,17 implying the immobilization (apparent rigidification) of more than 3 × 105 water molecules by one molecule of 1. To the best of our knowledge, among the hydrogelators known to date, 1 forms gels at the lowest gelator concentration. 2.3. Electron Microscopy. Cryogenic temperature transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) images of vitrified specimens of the gel formed in a solution of 0.75 mM 1 in 20% AcOH-water are shown in Figure 2. At the two magnifications shown, the gel appears as a well-developed intertwined network. The higher magnification view of Figure 2b reveals that the network is made of very thin, flat ribbons (2-5 nm wide). That those are indeed flat ribbons can be deduced from the uniformity of optical density across each one of them. One should realize that in the TEM, all structures in the thin specimen, approximately 100 nm thick, are projected and seen clearly in the image. This gives the impression of the presence of much more polymer in the gel than its actual concentration. 2.4. Circular Dichroism. To investigate the chiral structure of gels, CD experiments were performed on the gel derived (17) Partial gelations could still be observed at micromolar concentrations (75 µM) of 1, but these gels were unstable at room temperature.
Figure 4. Change in the fluorescence intensity of ANS (10 µM) and the I3/I1 ratio (pyrene fluorescence, [pyrene] ) 0.5 µM) as a function of the gelator concentration at 25 °C.
from the hydrochloride salt ([1‚HCl] ) 3 mM in 20% EtOHwater). A negative CD band (amide chromophore) was observed for both isotropic solution ([1‚HCl] ) 3 mM in neat EtOH) and gel. The CD band intensity at 216 nm was twice as much (21 mdeg) for gel than the intensity for the isotropic solution of 1‚HCl in neat EtOH (10 mdeg), which does not form a gel (not shown). Figure 3 shows that the intensity of the CD band diminishes to about 11 mdeg at the gel melting temperature (Tgel ≈ 55 °C). The variable temperature CD showed hysteresis (nonidentical heating and cooling curves). 2.5. Steady-State Fluorescence of Pyrene. Pyrene was used as an external fluorescent probe to determine the critical aggregation concentration. The vibronic fine structure of the pyrene fluorescence is indicative of local polarity of the binding site. The plot (Figure 4) of the ratio of two vibronic bands (I3/ I1) versus the gelator concentration (in 20% AcOH-water) suggested two critical aggregation concentration (CAC) ranges (CAC1 ≈ 0.4 mM and CAC2 ≈ 0.8 mM). The gelation was visually observed at 0.75 mM. No excimer formation was observed in the gel phase. With lower amounts of AcOH (e.g., 1% AcOH-water), the minimum gel concentration was lower (0.6 mM) and I3/I1 values were higher (Table 2). Another interesting observation was the formation of an excimer band (centered on 480 nm) in the pyrene fluorescence spectrum for (micellar) aggregates of 1 in 1% AcOH-water below a minimum gel concentration (i.e., below 0.6 mM). In the gel J. AM. CHEM. SOC.
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ARTICLES Table 2. Fluorescence Lifetimes and I3/I1 Values for Pyrene in Solutions, in Aggregates, and in Gels at 25 °C sample ([pyrene] ≈ 0.5 µM)
τ (ns)a
water 20% AcOH-water aggregate of 1 (0.6 mM) in 20% AcOH-water gel from 1 (5.3 mM) in 20% AcOH-water aggregate of 1 (42 µM) in 1% AcOH-water gel from 1 (0.8 mM) in 1% AcOH-water a
I3/I1b
135 137 170
0.58 0.61 0.75
226
1.10
239 (68)c
1.42
324
1.53
Errors are
