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Sustainability Assessment of Renewable Energy in the USA, Canada, the European Union, China, and the Russian Federation Edit Csefalvay, and Istvan T Horvath ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/ acssuschemeng.8b01213 • Publication Date (Web): 21 May 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 26, 2018
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Sustainability Assessment of Renewable Energy in the USA, Canada, the European Union, China, and the Russian Federation Edit Cséfalvaya,b and István T. Horváthb,* a
Department of Energy Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rakpart 3, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary. b Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong. *E-mail:
[email protected] KEYWORDS: Sustainability, Ethanol Equivalent, Fossil Energy, Renewable Energy, Biomass, Bioethanol ABSTRACT: Biomass is the oldest resource of energy for humans and its use could slow the depletion rate of fossil reserves and enable the development of sustainable energy and chemical industry. The sustainability of the replacement of natural gas, crude oil and coal with corn-based bioethanol was assessed by using the ethanol equivalents (EE) of fossil resources used in the USA, Canada, the EU, China, and the Russian Federation in 2008–2014. The calculations were based on first generation corn-based bioethanol technology as commercially practiced in the USA in 2008. Based on the EE2.3 values, the required volume of corn and the corresponding size of land was calculated, and compared with the actual lands used for corn production, which is only enough to replace one sixth of fossil resources in the USA, EU and China and practically insufficient in Canada and the Russian Federation. Until the utilization of electricity become practical and economical in aviation, biomass-based liquid fuels could be the sustainable alternative. The assessment of the replacement of natural gas, crude oil and coal based energy with renewable energy in these countries in 2008–2014 shows that a significant increase of the renewable energy portfolio is required. The continuous and reliable supply of energy has been one of the most important issues for humankind, regardless of geographical position, race, religion, economic and political conditions.1 The current global population of 7.6 billion is expected to grow to 8.8 billion by 2035 and consequently the primary energy consumption could increase from 13,147 Mtoe (million tons oil equivalent) in 2017 to 17,157 Mtoe by 2035. 2 Despite the growing environmental concerns with fossil 3 and nuclear energy,4 the primary energy in 2014 was still based on 86.31% of fossil and 4.44% on radioactive resources. 2 The replacement of natural gas, crude oil, and coal with different types of renewable energy resources has become the overarching goal of sustainable development. 5 The successful substitution of fossil and nuclear resources probably will require the combination of different renewable resources including hydropower, photovoltaic, wind, geothermal and biomass based energy. The renewable energy portfolio is therefore highly dependent of geographical location and weather conditions, the latter of which could rapidly and unpredictably start to change in the near future. We have recently developed a new sustainability metrics, the ethanol equivalent (EE), to assess biomass-based resources for the replacement of fossil resources.6 The EE was defined as “the mass of ethanol, expressed in Million tons Ethanol Equivalent or MtEE, needed to deliver the equivalent amount of energy from a given feedstock using energy equivalency or produce the equivalent amount of mass of a carbon chemical using molar equivalency”. The MtEE is a translational tool,7a similar to BP’s “Mtoe” or “million tons oil equivalent”.7b The efficiency of the bioethanol production technology can be characterized by the ethanol return on ethanol or ERoE, which
is equal to the energy return on energy invested or EROEI.8 When X units of bioethanol are used for the production of Y units of bioethanol, e.g. no fossil energy is used, the ERoE = Y/X and the EEY/X = X+Y. All calculations were based on first generation corn based bioethanol technology as commercially practiced in the USA in 2008: 1 unit of bioethanol is used to produce 2.3 units of bioethanol, e.g. EE2.3 = 3.3.9 Thus, the total value of EE2.3 allows the calculation of the required amount of biomass feedstock, which in turn, defines the corresponding size of land and even the necessary volume of water. 6 The total fossil energy used in the USA in 2008 could have been generated from 4,046 MtEE2.3,6 The corresponding volume of corn could have been grown on nearly 1,200 million hectares of land, which would have been larger than the total land of the USA, 916 million hectares. Other challenging issues are the environmental, social, economic, and political impacts of the competition of energy plants with food plants for agricultural land.10 Thus, the development of biomass-based energy in the US is far from reality and even including lignocellulose-based bioethanol cannot provide sustainable energy. 6 Similarly, ethylene, propylene, toluene, p-xylene, styrene, and ethylene oxide could not be produced sustainably because of the limited availability of bioethanol in the USA in 2008 – 2014.11 However, a 5-fold increase of the volume of bioethanol could result in a biomass-based production of carbon-based chemicals even when calculating with ERoE = 2.3. To complement our previous report concerning the sustainability of biomass based energy production in the USA,6 we have now assessed four additional countries, Canada, the European Union, China, and the Russian Federation for comparison. The EE2.3 of the fossil resources used for energy
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a
Country
Total land [Mha]a
USA Canada EU China Russia
983.35 998.47 448.00 959.70 1709.82
Terrestrial land [Mha] 914.76 909.35 n.a.b 932.82 1487.55 b
Agricultural land [%] of [Mha] total 408.43 (2010) 44.5 64.81 (2011) 6.8 174.35 (2013) 38.9c 519.00 (2011) 54.7 217.72 (2014) 13.1 c
[Mha]: million hectares; not available, calculated as a ratio of agricultural land and total land of European Union. The annual consumption of oil, gas, and coal by the USA, Canada, the European Union, China, and the Russian
Federation has been reported in million tons oil equivalent (Mtoe) by BP,2 which was converted to MtEE2.3 for 2008 – 2014 (Figures 1-5, see SI Table S1 for the details). It should be emphasized again that the EE2.3 values include the ethanol return on ethanol or ERoE,7 i.e., all the energy required for the bioethanol technology from cradle-to-grave was produced from bioethanol. EE2.3 [MtEE]
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 1. EE2.3 of the fossil energy consumption of the USA (◼ oil, gas, coal). EE2.3 [MtEE]
500 400 300 200 100 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 2. EE2.3 of fossil energy consumption of Canada (◼ oil, gas, coal). EE2.3 [MtEE]
production of these countries were used to calculate the required volume of corn and then the size of the corresponding land according to the corn productivity of each country (see Tables S1-S4). Biomass based energy is the oldest form of energy available for humans and it is based on the conversion of the Sun’s energy via the combustion of various forms of biomass to carbon dioxide and water. Since biomass is produced by photosynthesis from CO2 and H2O, biomass based energy production systems are renewable and carbon neutral, provided the generated energy is larger than the energy required for the production, collection and transportation of biomass as well as the bioethanol production, separation, and transportation to the energy production facilities (power plant or transportation vehicles). The natural formation of biomass could be limited by the total size of the available lands, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, the local weather, and the natural cycles of water, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients. It should be noted that although the available amount of biomass in rivers, lakes, seas and oceans are enormous, their use in energy generation have been negligible. Consequently, biomass grown on land has been the only source of biomass for energy and the size of the available agricultural land in appropriate environments is the most important issue. The rapid expansion of human activities in the last few hundred years has had a major impact on the conditions of our planet locally and globally. Besides effecting the size and quality of available agricultural land, the rapidly changing climate has lasting impact on what we can or cannot do. In addition to the worsening environmental conditions, the utilization of agricultural land for the production of biomass as a food supply or as an energy resource has become a critical issue. In general, we should prefer the production of food plants over energy crops. However, the non-edible residues and food wastes could be also used for the generation of renewable energy. Food wastes could be minimalized by waste-free kitchens.12 The size of the total, terrestrial, and agricultural lands of the USA, Canada, the European Union, China, and the Russian Federation are summarized in Table 1. Since our analysis spans between 2008 and 2014, when the number of member states in the EU was different, we used the actual number of states each year. China has the largest size of agricultural land, followed by the USA, the Russian Federation and the European Union. The size of the agricultural land of Canada and the Russian Federation is small compared to the size of their total land, which could be increased by global warming. Table 1. Comparison of the size of the total, terrestrial, and agricultural land of selected countries.
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 3. EE2.3 of fossil energy consumption of the EU (◼ oil, gas, coal). 6000 EE2.3 [MtEE]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 4. EE2.3 of fossil energy consumption of China (◼ oil, gas, coal).
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Area [Mha]
EE2.3 [MtEE]
1000 100 10 1 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
1000 100 10 1 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 9. Land requirements to replace fossil energy with cornethanol based energy and the available land in China (◼ crude oil, gas, coal, ▬ terrestrial land, ▬ agricultural land, ▬ current area of corn production).
1000 100
10000 10 1 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 6. Land requirements to replace fossil energy with cornethanol based energy and the available land in the USA ( ◼ crude oil, gas, coal, ▬ terrestrial land, ▬ agricultural land, ▬ current area of corn production). 1000 100 10 1 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 7. Land requirements to replace fossil energy with cornethanol based energy and the available land in Canada (◼ crude oil, gas, coal, ▬ terrestrial land, ▬ agricultural land, ▬ current area of corn production).
Area [Mha]
Area [Mha]
Figure 8. Land requirements to replace fossil energy with cornethanol based energy and the available land in the EU (◼ crude oil, gas, coal, ▬ terrestrial land, ▬ agricultural land, ▬ current area of corn production).
Area [Mha]
Figure 5. EE2.3 of fossil energy consumption of the Russian Federation (◼ oil, gas, coal). While crude oil and natural gas have been the main resources for energy in the USA, Canada and the EU, coal and natural gas were used in China and the Russian Federation, respectively. The USA was the top user of fossil resources until 2008, but the economic crisis has resulted in slight drop in fossil resource utilization. China has significantly increased the use of coal and became the top fossil resource consumer in the world. The EE2.3 values were used to calculate the required mass of corn and the corresponding size of land. For easy comparison, the size of the lands are shown in logarithmic scale on Figures 6 – 10. The calculations were based on first generation corn- or maize-kernel based bioethanol technology as commercially practiced in each country in each year (see Table S2-S4 in SI).
Area [ Mha]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
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1000 100 10 1 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 10. Land requirements to replace fossil energy with corn-ethanol based energy and the available land in the Russian Federation (◼ crude oil, gas, coal, ▬ terrestrial land, ▬ agricultural land, ▬ current area of corn production). Since the terrestrial lands include urban areas and other fields where agricultural production is practically impossible, our assessments were based on the use of the total agricultural land in each country, which is about one third of what would be required to replace all fossil resources. Thus, one of the three fossil resources, crude oil or natural gas or coal, can be substituted with bioethanol provided all agricultural land is used for corn production. Of course, this cannot be a feasible option at all, as food production should have much higher priority. The size of the currently used land for corn production is of course less than the size of the agricultural land; it would be only enough to replace one sixth of fossil resources in the USA, EU and China (Figure 6, 8 and 9) and practically insufficient in Canada and the Russian Federation (Figures 7 and 10.).
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4000
EE [MtEE]
50 40 30 20 10 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 12. Ethanol equivalent of different renewable energy resources in the USA (◼hydropower, ◼photovoltaic, ◼wind, ◼geothermal + biomass).
EE [MtEE]
50 40 30 20 10 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 13. Ethanol equivalent of different renewable energy resources in Canada (◼hydropower, ◼photovoltaic, ◼wind, ◼geothermal + biomass).
EE [MtEE]
While the conversion of the lignocellulosic part of the corn to bioethanol can increase the ethanol return of ethanol, or ERoE, from 2.3 to 413 the latter still represents a very modest improvement with respect to the required ERoE of 20–30. Furthermore, the ethical issues concerning the use of all agricultural land for energy crops, instead of food production, are very serious limiting factors. We conclude that corn (or maize-kernel) based first generation bioethanol is not an option for producing renewable energy and even significant improvements, e.g. second and third generation bioethanol technology, will have very limited impacts. The total energy consumption of the world has been increasing in the last two hundred years; rather modestly (0.7 EJ/year) until the 1950s and about ten times faster since. 14 The trend will probably continue as the population is expected to increase by 15% in the next 20 years. The total renewable energy produced in the USA, Canada, the EU, China, and the Russian Federation in 2014 is still a small fraction of the total fossil energy used (Figure 11.). In order to visualize the production of renewable resources (hydropower, solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy and bioenergy) with respect to fossil energy in some of these countries on the same figure, the scale for the EE had to be increased. In spite of the growing efforts to increase the contributions of different renewable resources to the total energy consumption, renewable energy still represents a modest ratio: it was nearly 10% in 2014. Hydropower has been the dominating renewable energy source in the USA until 2010, after which the other renewables together surpassed hydro energy (Figure 12.). While wind energy has tripled since 2008, the growth of geothermal energy and bioenergy was modest. The application of solar energy has started to increase in 2013, but it has still represented a small share of the renewable portfolio of the USA in 2014.
3500
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
3000
EE [MtEE]
Figure 14. Ethanol equivalent of different renewable energy resources in the EU (◼hydropower, ◼photovoltaic, ◼wind, ◼geothermal + biomass).
2500 2000 1500
EE [MtEE]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
1000 500
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
0 USA
Canada
EU
China
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Russia
Figure 11. EE of total fossil and renewable energy in 2014 (◼fossil energy◼ renewable energy).
Figure 15. Ethanol equivalent of different renewable energy resources in China (◼hydropower, ◼photovoltaic, ◼wind, ◼geothermal + biomass).
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3000
25
2500
20
EE [MtEE]
EE [MtEE]
15 10 5 0
2000 1500 1000 500
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year
Figure 17. Ethanol equivalent of total fossil resource consumption (◼), fossil resources used by manufacturers (◼), fossil resources used for energy (◼), total renewable energy used (◼), and biomass (◼) in the USA in 2014. 1000 Area [Mha]
Figure 16. Ethanol equivalent of different renewable energy resources in the Russian Federation (◼hydropower, ◼wind, ◼geothermal + biomass). Most of Canada’s renewable energy has been produced by hydro dams (Figure 13) and only a small fraction by other renewable resources (Figure S1). Although the use of solar energy almost tripled from 2008 to 2014, it is still about one tenth of wind and the half of geothermal + biomass. Hydropower has been the dominating renewable energy source in the European Union until 2011, after which the other renewables together became the dominating form of renewable energy (Figure 14). While wind energy has more than tripled between 2008 and 2014, the geothermal energy and bioenergy more than doubled. The application of solar energy has started to increase in 2011 and represented 11% of renewable energy of the European Union by the end of 2014. China produced more or less the same amount of hydro energy until 2011, which was increased by 52% by 2014 (Figure 15). Hydro energy has remained about 82-86% of the total renewable energy between 2011 and 2014. While the wind energy tripled between 2008 and 2014 to 12%, the geothermal + biomass based energy reached the maximum at 5% in 2011 and remained the same in the next three years. The solar energy steadily grew since 2009 and was 2% of the total renewable energy in 2014. However, the EROEI of the photovoltaic panels is not readily available, so the contribution of fossil energy might minimalize the total green energy production. The main source of renewable energy of the Russian Federation has been hydropower (Figure 16) and only a small amount of other renewable energy has been produced. (Figure S2.). It should be emphasized that some of the fossil resources have been used as feedstocks or rather raw materials by different manufacturers, a subset of the industrial sector including manufacturing, agriculture, construction, forestry, and mining. For example, hydrocarbons are feedstocks of plastic and carbon chemicals. Only a limited number of data bases are available, which differentiate according to the use of fossil resources. According to the 2014 Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey about 183 MtEE of fossil resources were used by the manufacturers in the USA in 2014. 15 The contribution of the different fossil resources was 79% (45%+34%, i.e. 146.5 MtEE) of crude oil, 10% (19.5 MtEE) of natural gas, 9% (14 MtEE) of coal, and 2% (3 MtEE) of coke and breeze. Consequently, the total fossil resources used in the USA in 2014 has to be reduced by 6.5% to provide the total fossil resources used for primary energy (Figure 17.), which is still significantly much more than the total renewable energy produced in 2014.
0
800 600 400 200 0
Figure 18. Land equivalent of total fossil resources for energy and feedstock (◼), fossil resources used by manufacturers (◼), total fossil resources used for energy (◼), total renewable energy used (◼), and biomass (◼), terrestrial land (▬), agricultural land (▬), area of corn production (▬) in the USA in 2014. In 2014, the total land required to produce enough EE to replace the fossil resources used by the manufacturers in the USA is about 13% of the total agricultural land and only a 1.5-times higher than the current area of corn production (Figure 18). Thus, the opportunity to replace oil refineries with bio refineries is coming closer and closer to reality. As we have suggested before, 6 future energy research should focus on sustainable generation and use of renewable electricity. Until the utilization of electricity become practical and economical in aviation,16 biomass-based liquid fuels could be the sustainable alternative (Figure 19 and 20).
150 EE2.3 [MtEE]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
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100 50 0 USA Canada
EU
China Russia
Figure 19. EE2.3 of the annual consumption of jet fuel in the USA, Canada, EU, China, and the Russian Federation in 2012.
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ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (Table S5.). EE of different renewable energy resources in Canada (Figure S1.) and Russian Federation (Figure S2.).
1000 Area [Mha]
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
100
Corresponding Author * E-mail:
[email protected] 10
ORCHID
1 USA Canada
EU
China Russia
István T. Horváth: 0000-0002-6324-186X Edit Cséfalvay: 0000-0002-8892-6179
Author Contributions The manuscript was written through contributions of both authors.
Figure 20. Land requirements (shown in logarithmic scale) to replace the annual consumptions of fossil based jet fuel with EE2.3 based biofuel, the agricultural land (▬), and the current area of corn production (▬) in the USA, Canada, EU, China, and the Russian Federation in 2012. The replacement of fossil resources with renewable biomass for the production of aviation fuels seems achievable in the USA, EU and China, especially if the conversion of the lignocellulosic part of the corn to bioethanol become a commercial practice. The resulting modest increase of the ethanol return of ethanol from 2.3 to 4 could reduce the land requirements by 13%. In summary, we have shown that corn (or maize-kernel) based first generation bioethanol was not an option for replacing fossil resources to produce primary energy in the USA, Canada, the European Union, China and the Russian Federation between 2008 – 2014. Even significant agricultural and technological improvements, e.g. the development and commercialization of 2nd and 3rd generation bioethanol technology, will have limited impacts. However, the development of about ten times more efficient biomass conversion processes could lower the required land enough that bio-refineries could become the major producers of carbon chemicals and aviation fuels. Similarly, more efficient production and use of food as well as the valorization of food wastes and agricultural residues could help to ensure a sustainable balance between biomass based production of foods and chemicals. Finally, the total renewable energy produced in the USA, Canada, the European Union, China and the Russian Federation was about 2.4%, 16%, 6.4%, 4.3%, and 2.5% of the total fossil energy required in 2014, respectively. Consequently, appropriate and significant increase of the renewable energy portfolio is required to replace crude oil, natural gas, and coal in primary energy production.
ASSOCIATED CONTENT Supporting Information. The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021…./acssuschemeng. Conversion of fossil energy consumption of the USA in 2008 toEE2.3 (Table S1.), corn production (corn grain) of selected countries (Table S2), area used for corn production of selected countries (Table S3.) in selected countries. Calculation of productivity of selected countries (corn grain/area used for corn production) (Table S4.). Conversion of renewable energy to EE
Funding Sources Some of this work was funded by the Innovation and Technology Support Program of the Innovation and Technology Fund of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR (ITS/079/13). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material (or by members of the project team) do not reflect the views of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR, the Innovation and Technology Commission or the Panel of Assessors for the Innovation and Technology Support Program of the Innovation and Technology Fund. We thank the Environment and Conservation Fund (ECF/31/2014) for partial financial support. E. Cséfalvay is grateful for the support of the János Bolyai Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
ABBREVIATIONS Mtoe, Million tons oil equivalent; EE, ethanol equivalent; MtEE, Million tons ethanol equivalent; ERoE, ethanol return on ethanol; EROEI, energy return on energy invested.
REFERENCES [1] Fanchi, J. R.; Fanchi, C. J. Energy in the 21st Century, 4th Ed., World Scientific, Singapore, 2017. [2] http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energyeconomics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html, accessed on February 12, 2018 (BP Statistical Review of World Energy) [3] Brown, L. R. The Great Transition: Shifting from Fossil Fuels to Solar and Wind Energy, W. W. Norton Company, 2015. [4] Fereguson, C. D. Nuclear Energy, Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, NY (2011). [5] Boyle G. Renewable Energy. Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, NY (2004). [6] Cséfalvay, E.; Akien, G. R.; Qi, L.; Horváth, I. T. Definition and application of ethanol equivalent: sustainability performance metrics for biomass conversion to carbon-based fuels and chemicals. Catal. Today, 2015, 239, 50–55, DOI 10.1016/j.cattod.2014.02.006. [7] (a) For example, the energy content of one gallon E100 fuel (containing about 95% ethanol and 5% water) is 84,530 Btu; see.Alternative Fuels Data Center, Fuel Properties Comparison, https://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/fuel_comparison_chart.pdf, accessed on May 2, 2018. (b) Mtoe shows the mass of crude oil in million tons needed to deliver the equivalent amount of energy from a given energy-feedstock using energy equivalency. [8] Murphy, D. J.; Hall, C. A. S. Year in review–EROI or energy return on (energy) invested. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2010, 1185, 102−118. [9] Wyman, C. Handbook on Bioethanol: Production and Utilization, Applied Energy Technology Series, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 1996. [10] Michel, H. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 2516-2518, DOI 10.1002/anie.201200218.
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ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering [11] Horváth, I.T.; Cséfalvay, E.; Mika, L.T.; Debreczeni, M. Sustainability metrics for biomass-based carbon chemicals. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2017, 5, 2734–2740, DOI 10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b03074. [12] Gunders, D. Waste Free Kitchen Handbook: A Guide to Eating Well and Saving Money By Wasting Less Food, Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 2015. [13] Gallagher, P.; Yee, W.; Baumes H.S. “2015 Energy Balance for the Corn-Ethanol Industry” Office of Energy Policy and New Uses, U.S. Department of Agriculture (2016). [14] Smil, V. Energy Transitions: Global and National Perspectives, 2nd Ed. Praeger, Santa Barbara, CA (2016).
[15] .(a) US EIA, Energy sources used as feedstocks, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=us_energy_ind ustry, accessed on February 12, 2018. (b) U.S. EIA, Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey 2014, Tables 1.2 and 2.2, October 2017. [16] https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/jet_fuel_consumption/, accessed on May 2, 2018.
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Synopsis Biomass based primary energy production is unsustainable, but it could become the sustainable resource of carbon chemicals and aviation fuels.
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