TECHNICAL WRITING AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS* BY ISRAEL LIGHT, Ed.D. Engineer Component, Public Health Service, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington 25, D. C.
of intellectual disciplines t o the c o n t r a r y notwithstanding. "Executive S u i t e f t 3t e l l s the s t o r y in fiction. "White C o l l a r " and "The P o w e r E l i t e t t 4tell the s t o r y in sociology. M a r g a r e t Mead t e l l s the s t o r y in anthropology. C a s e studies of the p r o ductivity of f a c t o r y w o r k e r s t e l l the s t o r y in industrial relations r e ~ e a r c h . David ~ Riesman's c l a s s i c , "The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing A m e r i c a n C h a r a c t e r ,I' published in 1950, i s a l a n d m a r k in the s o c i a l - b e h a v i o r a l sciences.6 Even in the public schools, the c r y i s r a i s e d that the sharpening of the intellect i s neglected in favor of s u c h e n t r i e s on r e p o r t c a r d s a s "cooperation," "gets along well with o t h e r s , " "adjusts e a s i l y t o the group." P a r e n t s s e e m m o r e c o n c e r n e d with the evidences of n o r m a l p e r s o n a l i t y than with achievement in spelling o r a r i t h m e t i c . In other w o r d s , s u c c e s s today i s i n c r e a s i n g l y m e a s u r e d by one's standing in the e y e s of o t h e r s . Within s u c h a f r a m e w o r k of r e f e r e n c e , the technical w r i t e r ' s striving for p r o f e s s i o n a l standing and status i s not only u n d e r s t a n d a b l e but a l s o n o r m a l . Such s t r i v i n g r e p r e s e n t s s e r i o u s effort and not j u s t an inconsequential semantic exercise, because professional e s p r i t is involved and p e r s o n a l goals and satisfactions a r e involved.
INTRODUCTION The subject of p r o f e s s i o n a l status for t e c h nical w r i t e r s i s r a i s e d r e g u l a r l y at c h a p t e r m e e t i n g s and i s w r i t t e n about in t h e - S T W P REV1EW.l Why? What difference should it m a k e to the technical w r i t e r whether he o r s h e 'be c o n s i d e r e d a m e m b e r of a " t r a d e , " a " c r a f t , " o r a " p r o f e s s i o n ? " Why do we want t o be p r o f e s s i o n a l ? What a r e the e a r m a r k s of a p r o f e s s i o n ? How do we go about acquiring s u c h a label ? What we a r e called m a k e s a big difference. In the world of w o r k and in the p r o c e s s of e a r n ing a living, the w o r d s "profession" and " p r o fessional" r e p r e s e n t p r e f e r r e d social s t a t u s , high i n c o m e , and specialized c o m p e t e n c e , The following p a r a g r a p h s a t t e m p t a n s w e r s to the questions r a i s e d by: (a) elaborating on the i m plications of t h e s e t h r e e f e a t u r e s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s ; (b) p r e s e n t i n g a v a r i e t y of definitions of "profession"; ( c ) considering the r e l e v a n c e of s u c h definitions t o c u r r e n t conditions of employment; (d) identifying the technical w r i t e r ; and ( e ) c o n s i d e r i n g the m e a n s by which technical w r i t e r s can a d vance m o s t effectively t h e i r individual and collective standing toward p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s . "PROFESSION" AND STATUS
ENGINEERS SEEK STATUS
The existence, intensity, and i m p o r t a n c e of the psychological and emotion-laden u r g e f o r social s t a t u s cannot be b r u s h e d u n d e r the rug. It i s difficult t o deny that status--and s t r i v i n g f o r it--is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of A m e r i c a n life t0da.y. Vance P a c k a r d ' s book, "The Status S e e k e r s : I 2 m a d e a big s p l a s h a s a B e s t S e l l e r , not b e c a u s e it was f i r s t - r a t e sociology (it wasn't) but b e c a u s e e v e r y r e a d e r could find himself d e s c r i b e d s o m e w h e r e in those p a g e s , and even t r i e d t o pick up a few t r i c k s of the t r a d e f r o m t h e m , After a l l , in a status ridden society, one's "label," one's "position," o n e ' s "standing" i s i m p o r t a n t . E t one knows is not n e a r l y s o i m p o r t a n t a s i t once w a s , the p h e nomenal growth of s c i e n c e and the proliferation
An example of the intensity of this c o n c e r n f o r status i s f u r n i s h e d by e n g i n e e r s . Society denies e n g i n e e r s neither income n o r s k i l l . Yet the engineering f r a t e r n i t y bemoans i t s fate in not being given the s t a t u s and d e f e r e n c e a c c o r d e d s u c h activities a s law, m e d i c i n e , d e n t i s t r y , and theology; i s d i s t u r b e d by the i n c r e a s i n g tendency to l u m p s c i e n t i s t s and e n g i n e e r s in the s a m e mold; and founded the National Society of P r o f e s s i o n a l E n g i n e e r s ( a s c o n t r a s t e d with subject m a t t e r specialty g r o u p s ) f o r the e x p r e s s p u r p o s e of establishing and enhancing the p r o f e s s i o n a l status and standing of e n g i n e e r s . That society's j o u r n a l , The A m e r i c a n E n g i n e e r , regularly c a r r i e s a f e a t u r e
*The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution of Nathan Kassack. Information Officer with the National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C. to the development of the points of view presented herein.
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TECHNICAL WRITING AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS
column w r i t t e n by t h e Executive D i r e c t o r . The column i s headed "Thoughts on P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , " and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e column t i t l e s include "What O t h e r s Thin:k of U s , " "The E n g i n e e r and C u l t u r e , " "The C o s t s of P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , " e t c . The e n g i n e e r s a r e not alone i n this s t r i v ing. The A m e r i c a n Chemical Society r e c e n t l y has e s t a b l i s h e d a C o m m i t t e e on P r o f e s s i o n a l Relations and Status and has p r e s e n t e d s o m e v e r y interesting symposia at their recent annual conventions .I The income f e a t u r e of p r o f e s s i o n a l standing r e q u i r e s no elaboration. A n u m b e r of a r t i c l e s in the l i t e r a t u r e of p r o f e s s i o n a l education p e r i odically a t t e s t t o the higher l i f e t i m e income of the p r o f e s s i o n a l l y t r a i n e d p e r s o n . Worthy of note, however, i s the obvious link between i n come and competence. The public has! come t o a s c r i b e high l e v e l s of skill and t a l e n t t o the p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n . Two d r i v e s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l standing c a n be recognized i n t e r m s of competence. One i s the i n n e r d r i v e f o r p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n in p e r f o r m i n g a n a c t well o r doing a j o b competently and thoroughly. The o t h e r i s the s t r i v i n g f o r recognition and p r i d e i n having p e r f o r m e d well by the s t a n d a r d s of o t h e r s . Since the public has given the s t a m p of "profession" t o t h o s e who have studied long and h a r d and who have d i s played a high l e v e l of s k i l l i n the u s e of tools and techniques, knowledge, and judgment, i t i s unde r s tandable wh.y technical w r i t e r s pos s e s s the s t r o n g u r g e f o r s i m i l a r s t a t u s . SENSITIVITY TO LACK O F BACKGROUND One o t h e r f e a t u r e of technical writing a s a livelihood m u s t be taken account of i n explaining the d r i v e f o r s t a t u s . Most p r o f e s s i o n s have a r e l a t i v e l y long h i s t o r y of development. F r o m slow e m e r g e n c e in. the world of w o r k o r thought t o the build-up of a n organized body of knowledge p e c u l i a r t o th.e p r a c t i t i o n e r s , t o t h e s p e c i f i c and s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g f o r p e r f o r m a n c e --this kind of background i s s t i l l denied t h e technical w r i t e r b e c a u s e of t h e r e c e n c y of h i s e m e r g e n c e . As individuals, many technical w r i t e r s f e e l self conscious b e c a u s e they n e v e r studied f o r a d e g r e e i n technical w r i t i n g . They often a r e c o n s i d e r e d refugees f r o m o t h e r f i e l d s . They f r e q u e n t l y a r e looked upon a s opportunists who stumbled upon a ta.lent which they a r e c u r r e n t l y exploiting. Collectively, t e c h n i c a l w r i t e r s a r e a b a s t a r d g r o u p of u n c e r t a i n o r i g i n , with no conventional o r l e g i t i m a t e genealogy, and with no c u r r e n t widely accepted o r enforced benchm a r k s and s t a n d a r d s of competence. Why shouldn't we f e e l s,tigmatized! All t h e m o r e r e a s o n t o c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n e o u r r o l e and o u r s k i l l s and t o r e o r g a n i z e o u r w o r k s o a s to p r o vide m o r e o r d e r and t r a i n i n g to the end that we c a n p e r f o r m m o r e competently. F o r with c o m petence will come recognition, and with r e c o g nition c o m e s s t a t u s .
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One thing i s c e r t a i n : t i t l e and organization by t h e m s e l v e s will not be sufficient, L e g i t i m a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s and the public will soon recognize the phony f a c a d e . Upgrading by r e labeling i s common. The u n d e r t a k e r b e c o m e s a m o r t i c i a n . The beauty o p e r a t o r t u r n s into a c o s m e t i c i a n . The m e c h a n i c suddenly i s a mechanical e n g i n e e r . This l a s t example i s a warning. Technical w r i t e r s should not be titled "publications e n g i n e e r s " u n l e s s they a r e bona fide g r a d u a t e s of an engineering c u r r i c u l u m providing a b a s i c d e g r e e . O t h e r w i s e , the t i t l e i s m i s l e a d i n g , a p p e a r s a s a subterfuge, and provides a f r a g i l e and e a s i l y broken c r u t c h t o the technical w r i t e r who s e e k s t o e s t a b l i s h his r o l e on a f i r m foundation. Neither will o r g a n i zation alone suffice. Unskilled, s e m i - s k i l l e d , and skilled w o r k e r s have f o r m e d unions but they c a n h a r d l y be c o n s i d e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s . Many fine c i t i z e n s have organized civic g r o u p s , s u c h a s the L i o n s , R o t a r i a n s , and Kiwanis. Yet t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s hardly qualify t h e m a s "professional" city p l a n n e r s o r s o c i a l w o r k e r s . Much m o r e i s r e q u i r e d than t i t l e and organization. What? DEFINING "PROFESSION" A m a j o r difficulty i n acquiring the s t a m p of " P r o f e s s i o n a l " i s the p r e c i s e meaning of p r o f e s s i o n . It defies definition. It i s an e l u s i v e word. The b e s t the l i t e r a t u r e c a n provide i s a s e r i e s of e l e m e n t s , f a c t o r s , o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n should p o s s e s s . N o two such l i s t s a r e a l i k e , but many s h a r e c e r t a i n common denominator e l e m e n t s . It i s useful t o p r e s e n t a few definitions and d e s c r i p t i o n s and t o identify c e r t a i n r e c u r r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a g a i n s t which technical w r i t e r s , individually and a s a g r o u p , m a y place t h e m s e l v e s . In o r d e r t o provide v a r i e t y of a p p r o a c h , the definitions o r d e s c r i p t i o n s of "profession" and "professional p e r s o n " in t h e following p a r a g r a p h s r e p r e s e n t : (1) a F e d e r a l regulation, (2) a s c i e n c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r , ( 3 ) a m e d i c a l i n n o v a t o r , (4)t h r e e e d u c a t o r s , ( 5 ) a newspaper e d i t o r , (6) a u n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t , ( 7 ) a c h e m i s t and f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t of the A m e r i c a n Chemical Society, (8) an e n g i n e e r , and (9) a sociologist. The T a f t - H a r t l e y Act defines t h e p r o f e s sional employee a s "(a) any employee engaged in work (i) predominantly intellectual and v a r i e d i n c h a r a c t e r a s opposed t o routine m e n t a l , m a n u a l , m e c h a n i c a l , o r physical work; (ii) involving t h e c o n s i s t e n t e x e r c i s e of d i s c r e t i o n and judgment i n i t s p e r f o r m a n c e ; (iii) of s u c h a c h a r a c t e r that the output produced o r the r e s u l t accomplished cannot be s t a n d a r d i z e d in r e l a t i o n t o a given p e r i o d of t i m e ; (iv) r e q u i r ing knowledge of an advanced type in a field of s c i e n c e or l e a r n i n g c u s t o m a r i l y acquired by a prolonged c o u r s e of s p e c i a l i z e d intellectual i n s t r u c t i o n and study in an institution of higher l e a r n i n g or a h o s p i t a l , a s distinguished f r o m a
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g e n e r a l a c a d e m i c education o r f r o m a n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p o r f r o m t r a i n i n g i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of routine m e n t a l , m a n u a l , o r p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s ; o r (b) any employee, who (i) h a s completed t h e c o u r s e s of s p e c i a l i z e d i n t e l l e c t u a l i n s t r u c t i o n and study d e s c r i b e d i n c l a u s e (iv) of p a r a g r a p h ( a ) , and (ii) i s p e r f o r m i n g r e l a t e d w o r k u n d e r the supervision of a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n t o qualify himself t o become a p r o f e s s i o n a l e m ployee as defined i n p a r a g r a p h ( a ) .If8 F o r p u r p o s e s of clarifying c a t e g o r i e s of employees eligible f o r m i n i m u m wages and o v e r t i m e p a y , f o r e x a m p l e , the A d m i n i s t r a t o r of the Fair L a b o r Standards o r Wage-Hour Act h a s defined t h e "professional employee" on the b a s i s of the Taft-Hartley definitions.' I l l u s t r a t i v e of d e c i s i o n s r e n d e r e d i n c a s e s involving t h e application of t h i s definition i s t h e following note which a p p e a r e d i n The A m e r i c a n Engineer?' "A t e c h n i c a l w r i t e r h a s been held exempt u n d e r t h e Wage-Hour law as a professional employee by a F e d e r a l D i s t r i c t Court i n C a l i f o r n i a . He had sued f o r t i m e -and-a-half payment f o r h o u r s o v e r f o r t y p e r week. The Court h e l d , however, t h a t h i s application of engineering d a t a and e x e r c i s e of judgment and d i s c r e t i o n brought h i m within t h e professional-exempt category." The following c r i t e r i a constitute a n a n s w e r t o the question: What i s a p r o f e s s i o n ? "First and f o r e m o s t , i t s m e m b e r s a r e the p o s s e s s o r s and custodians of a s p e c i a l field of knowledge, a c q u i r e d by long, assiduous study, and they a r e r e s p e c t e d and a c c o r d e d p r i v i l e g e s b e c a u s e of t h a t f a c t . Second, it is a l o o s e grouping of i n dividuals r a t h e r than a p y r a m i d a l o r g a n i z a Third, every profession has, to some tion.. d e g r e e , a s y m b o l i s m and a r i t u a l of i t s own., , F o u r t h , t h e r e i s often, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e o l d e r p r o f e s s i o n s , a m e a n s f o r maintaining s t a n d a r d s and f o r disciplining t h o s e who violate a c o d e , But t h e usually backed up by t h e civil l a w . . p r i m a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a p r o f e s s i o n h a s not is y e t been mentioned. Without i t , no group t r u l y entitled t o t h e p r o u d n a m e of p r o f e s s i o n . . The m e m b e r s of a p r o f e s s i o n m i n i s t e r t o t h e That author a l s o lists among t h e people."" r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of a p r o f e s s i o n "to enhance and extend t h e knowledge and understanding on which the p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e of t h e p r o f e s s i o n is based."" M o r r i s Cogan h a s m a d e a n e x t e n s i v e s u r vey of the l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s subject13 and concludes t h a t "the promulgation of a s a t i s f a c t o r y definition h a s p r o g r e s s e d but l i t t l e beyond the s i x c r i t e r i a p r o p o s e d by A b r a h a m Flexner." In F l e x n e r ' s w o r d s : " P r o f e s s i o n s involve e s s e n t i a l l y i n t e l l e c t u a l operations with l a r g e individual r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; they d e r i v e t h e i r raw m a t e r i a l f r o m s c i e n c e and l e a r n i n g ; t h i s m a t e rial they w o r k up t o a p r a c t i c a l and definite end; they p o s s e s s a n educationally c o m m u n i c a ble technique; they tend t o self -organization; they a r e becoming increasingly a l t r u i s t i c i n motivation.!! l4
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What m a k e s a p r o f e s s i o n is suggested by t h e following t e n points. "( 1) A p r o f e s s i o n m u s t s a t i s f y an indispensable s o c i a l need and be based upon well-established and s o c i a l l y accepted s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s ; ( 2 ) i t m u s t d e mand the adequate p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l and c u l t u r a l t r a i n i n g ; (3) i t m u s t demand the p o s s e s s i o n of a body of s p e c i a l i z e d and systematized knowledge; (4)i t m u s t give evidence of needed skills which t h e public does not p o s s e s s ; t h a t i s , s k i l l s which a r e p a r t l y native and p a r t l y a c q u i r e d ; ( 5 ) i t m u s t have developed a s c i e n t i f i c technique which is t h e r e s u l t of t e s t e d exper i e n c e ; (6) i t m u s t r e q u i r e the e x e r c i s e of d i s c r e t i o n and judgment a s t o the t i m e and m a n n e r of the p e r f o r m a n c e of duty. This is i n c o n t r a s t t o the kind of w o r k which is s u b j e c t t o i m m e d i a t e d i r e c t i o n and s u p e r v i s i o n ; ( 7 ) i t m u s t be a type of beneficial w o r k , the r e s u l t of which is not s u b j e c t t o s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n t e r m s of unit p e r f o r m a n c e o r t i m e element; (8) i t m u s t have a group consciousness designed t o extend s c i e n t i f i c knowledge in t e c h n i c a l l a n guage; (9) i t m u s t have sufficient s e l f - i m p e l l i n g power t o r e t a i n i t s m e m b e r s throughout life. It m u s t not be u s e d as a m e r e stepping stone t o o t h e r occupations; (10) i t m u s t recognize i t s obligations t o s o c i e t y by i n s i s t i n g t h a t i t s m e m b e r s l i v e up t o a n e s t a b l i s h e d code of ethics."15 A f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t of the A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l Society e x p r e s s e d himself a s follows: "A r e a l professional m a n h a s obtained a s p e c i a l i z e d education m a t e r i a l l y g r e a t e r than t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r o t h e r occupations; follows throughout his life a p r o g r a m of self-education and i m p r o v e m e n t ; f e e l s responsible f o r advancing his p r o f e s s i o n and the t r a i n i n g of the young m e n who e n t e r i t ; w o r k s at developing his own i n i t i a t i v e , judgment, and s e n s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; r e a l i z e s t h a t his p r e s t i g e depends upon the u s e of h i s s p e c i a l i z e d knowledge f o r the benefit of o t h e r s .I6 P r e s i d e n t Walker of Pennsylvania State University b e l i e v e s that "a p r o f e s s i o n i s d i s tinguished f r o m a n occupation o r a t r a d e i n at l e a s t two i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s : (1) i n t h e amount of study and t r a i n i n g p r e r e q u i s i t e t o a c a r e e r i n t h e chosen field and ( 2 ) i n t h e attitude of t h e p e r s o n toward his w o r k . Under t h e f i r s t d i s tinction, p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m is achieved o r e a r n e d through the m a s t e r y of a r i g o r o u s body of knowledge unique t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n . . , Under the second d i s t i n c t i o n , p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m is f e r r e d by the community a t l a r g e upon an i n dividual o r group because of t h e acceptance by 17 t h a t individual o r group of a code of e t h i c s . . D r . Walker a l s o n o t e s t h a t "professionalism s t r e s s e s d u t i e s , obligation, and r e s p o n s i b i l i Professionalism clearly implies deties.. votion t o a higher end than t h a t of p e r s o n a l p r o f i t o r s e l f i s h interest."18 An engineer s t a t e s t h a t " p r a c t i c e of a p r o f e s s i o n is b a s e d upon s p e c i a l i z e d knowledge i n a p a r t i c u l a r field of l e a r n i n g . It involves i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t and c a l l s f o r c r e a t i v e
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TECHNICAL WRITING AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS
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thinking.. No one rightfully c a n l a y c l a i m to being a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n u n l e s s he i s m o t i vated by a d e s i r e f o r s e r v i c e - - s e r v i c e t o those i n his i m m e d i a t e c i r c l e of a s s o c i a t e s and s e r v Professionalism i s i c e to m a n k i n d . . idealistic J u s t i c e B r a n d e i s is quoted a s having s u g g e s t e d that "a p r o f e s s i o n is an occupation r e q u i r i n g extensive p r e l i m i n a r y intellectual t r a i n i n g , p u r s u e d p r i m a r i l y f o r o t h e r s and not m e r e l y o n e ' s s e l f , and accepting a s the m e a s u r e of achievement one's contributions t o s o c i e t y r a t h e r than individual financial reward." 2 o A n u m b e r of w r i t e r s have singled out s p e c i a l a t t r i b u t e s of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m to e m p h a s i z e . T h u s , one f e e l s that "as e v e r y w h e r e , the c o n goes hand i n hand solidation of a p r o f e s s i o n with the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s t a n d a r d s and e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s . ' I 21 S i m i l a r l y , a n e w s p a p e r m a n w r i t e s : "We will get j u s t about a s m u c h p r o f e s s i o n a l recognition a s we a r e willing, f i g u r a tively, t o buy. The coin with which we buy is regulation-- regulation by the p r o f e s s i o n itself o r by s o m e o t h e r agency--the setting up of s t a n d a r d s and the s u p e r v i s i o n of them."22 An educator who comprehensively studied this subject of p r ~ f e s s i o n a l i s mbelieves ~~ that "profession d e m a n d s a r d u o u s t r a i n i n g and t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s p e r s o n a l c o m m i t m e n t t o an An e d u c a t o r ' s b i a s exacting ethical c o d e . . shows itself c l e a r l y as follows: "The economic, educational, and s o c i a l f a c t o r s which influence p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s i n t h e public mind a r e c o m plex and i n t e r r e l a t e d ; but that the amount and kind of education--both g e n e r a l and technical-r e q u i r e d of the p r o s p e c t i v e m e m b e r s of a p a r t i c u l a r occupational group d e t e r m i n e its s o c i a l s t a t u s is incontestable."25
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RELEVANCE O F DEFINITIONS-WHO IS "PROFESSIONAL ? " Some o b s e r v a t i o n s can be m a d e concerning c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of t h e s e and o t h e r definitions and d e s c r i p t i o n s of "profession" and "profes sional." F i r s t , many definitions included s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s individual initiative, judg m e n t and d i s c r e t i o n , a s e n s e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and ethical conduct. It m u s t be admitted, howe v e r , that all individuals, p r o f e s s i o n a l or not, should p o s s e s s t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s . The c o n s i d e r ation of w h e t h e r o'r not such i t e m s belong i n a definition of "professional" is commented upon by one author who s a y s t h a t "in the c a s e of those who c o n s i d e r definition i m p o s s i b l e or even u n d e s i r a b l e , the i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of defining s e e m s to d e r i v e f r o m an inability t o m e a s u r e the d e g r e e i n which t r a i t s m u s t be Dresent f o r p r o f e s s i o n t o exis:, r a t h e r than f r o m t h e i m p o s sibility of identifying those t r a i t s Second, "many in e m e r g i n g p r o f e s s i o n s s e l e c t t h e c l a s s i c a l independent p r o f e s s i o n a l a s a model. Such a model is becoming m o r e of a s e n t i m e n t
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than a reality,"27 and "both the s t a t e and the l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e absorbing m o r e and m o r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s , It i s a moot question whether it is p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m u n d e r s u c h conditions .'I 28 The observation that c u r r e n t definitions of "profession" a r e b a s e d on a c l a s s i c a l conception which i s now p a s s k is w o r t h examining. The u s u a l o l d e r p r o f e s s i o n s included m e d i c i n e , l a w , and theology. C u r r e n t definitions a l l r e f e r to the need f o r extended a c a d e m i c contact with specific disciplines and bodies of knowledge. But could a s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s m a n be called a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n ? He obviously p o s s e s s e s competence and s k i l l s of a high o r d e r , but m a y not have a c q u i r e d t h e m through f o r m a l training. Even i f he had, does the Graduate School of B u s i n e s s Administration automatically produce a "professional" b u s i n e s s m a n ? Is b u s i n e s s a p r o f e s s i o n ? O t h e r than the r e q u i r e m e n t of long a c a d e m i c e x p o s u r e , the b u s i n e s s m a n fills the bill a d m i r a b l y : he engages in d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s with a "client;" he is p r e s u m e d t o abide by a code of e t h i c s ; he is organized into C h a m b e r s of C o m m e r c e and product organizations. On the o t h e r hand, t h e c a r e f u l l y t r a i n e d c h e m i s t is a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n , i f he t e a c h e s . But is he a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n , i f he is employed by a p e t r o l e u m c o m p a n y ? Is c h e m i s t r y a p r of e s sion ? It m a y well be that the c u r r e n t identifiable c r i t e r i a o r e a r m a r k s of "profession" a r e no longer useful. Knowledge i s accumulating a t a f a n t a s t i c r a t e . M o r e and m o r e people a r e r e ceiving m o r e and m o r e education. New s p e c i a l t i e s a r e springing up r e g u l a r l y - - n u c l e a r engineering, g a m m a r a y s p e c t r o s c o p y , eugenics d e m o g r a p h y , s o c i o m e t r y , biomechanics. If t h e w o r k one does r a t h e r than t h e schooling one has had is the m a r k of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n , then it m u s t be admitted that the p o s s e s s i o n and e x e r c i s e of identifiable competencies and p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l s should m a k e a p e r s o n a p r o f e s sional. It could then be pleaded that the "old" meaning of "profession" is no longer useful; that the s t a t u s e l e m e n t is the only hangover of such definitions t o which people s t i l l cling; and t h a t , f o r all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , the r e f e r e n c e to "profession" is e i t h e r quite m e a n i n g l e s s o r e l s e anyone with s p e c i a l s k i l l s is entitled t o u s e the t e r m . The implication is s t r o n g t h a t , f r o m t h i s point of view, the technical w r i t e r should conc e n t r a t e on perfecting his s k i l l s . The value of the s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d will bring him--and her-i n c r e a s i n g recognition. And with i n c r e a s i n g recognition will c o m e e i t h e r t h e legitimacy of the u s e of t h e t i t l e "professional" o r e l s e the t e r m will have outlived i t s u s e f u l n e s s f o r valid d i s c r i m i n a t i o n among livelihoods --in which c a s e i t m a k e s no difference !
ISRAEL LIGHT
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IDENTIFYING THE TECHNICAL WRITER This e n t i r e d i s c u s s i o n i s b a s e d upon the a s s u m p t i o n that a technical w r i t e r i s c l e a r l y identifiable in the f i r s t place. But i s h e ? Some people c l a i m that s u c h a p e r s o n w r i t e s m a n u a l s of a s s e m b l y - d i s a s s e m b l y , operation, m a i n t e n a n c e , and r e p a i r of specific p r o d u c t s s u c h a s a i r p l a n e s and television s e t s ; p r e p a r e s technical r e p o r t s ; o r p r e p a r e s specifications of different t y p e s . Why i s s u c h a p e r s o n cons i d e r e d a technical w r i t e r ? B e c a u s e he w r i t e s about technical m a t t e r s ! By this c r i t e r i o n , the s c i e n c e w r i t e r j o u r n a l i s t m u s t a l s o be a technical w r i t e r . The g h o s t - w r i t e r of s p e e c h e s d e a l ing with scientific o r technological data of any kind i s a l s o a technical w r i t e r . Obviously, the technical w r i t e r ' s p a r t i c u l a r u s e f u l n e s s i s the ability t o "translate" c e r t a i n scientific data into language u n d e r s t a n d a b l e by individuals a t l e a s t one level removed f r o m that of the s o u r c e of the data. At the s o u r c e , i t i s a s s u m e d that a s c i e n t i s t , engineer, o r p h y s i c i a n , f o r e x a m p l e , will compose his own c o n tribution in j o u r n a l s f o r the edification of and exchange of knowledge with his p e e r s . The special contribution of the technical w r i t e r i s the p r e p a r a t i o n of initially highly complex m a t e r i a l f o r u s e by, f o r e x a m p l e , company a d m i n i s t r a t 0 r s , s t o c k h o l d e r s , s p e c i a l i s t s in other f i e l d s , c o n s u m e r s , or f o r g e n e r a l public i n f o r m a t i o n . In other w o r d s , the technical w r i t e r i s an i n t e r p r e t e r . The late D r . Glenn F r a n k explained this role well: 2 9 "The p r a c t i c a l value of e v e r y social invention o r m a t e r i a l d i s c o v e r y d e pends upon i t s being adequately i n t e r p r e t e d t o the m a s s e s . The f u t u r e of scientific p r o g r e s s depends a s much on the i n t e r p r e t i v e mind a s it does upon the c r e a t i v e m i n d . . The i n t e r p r e t e r stands between the l a y m a n , whose knowledge of all things i s indefinite--and the s c i e n t i s t whose knowledge of one thing i s authoritative.. The s c i e n t i s t advances knowledge.. , The History i n t e r p r e t e r advances p r o g r e s s . . affords abundant evidence that civilization h a s advanced in d i r e c t r a t i o to the efficiency with which the thought of the t h i n k e r s has been t r a n s l a t e d into the language of the m a s s e s . "
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THE TECHNICAL WRITER'S TALENTS If the e m p h a s i s i s placed on how t o t r a n s l a t e technical m a t e r i a l , the training r e q u i r e d to b e c o m e a competent technical w r i t e r i s frankly not i m p r e s s i v e . Examination of the tables of contents of m o s t "how to" books on technical writing d i s c l o s e s s t a r t l i n g s i m i l a r i t y among them.30 They all d e s c r i b e s u c h activit i e s a s : how t o go about g a t h e r i n g data; the identification of the consuming audience; types of r e p o r t s ; suggestions for c l e a r and u n c l u t t e r e d sentences; g e n e r a l r u l e s of g r a m m a r ; o r d e r l i n e s s
and logic in the p r e s e n t a t i o n of data; hints on the writing of technical l e t t e r s ; and a c h a p t e r on g r a p h i c s . But a r e n ' t t h e s e suggestions useful f o r m o s t kinds of writing (even fiction, a t t i m e s ) , whether the subject be the sex life of elephants or the maintenance of a 105 m m . howitzer ? If attention i s given t o what one w r i t e s about, then the p r i m e distinguishing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the technical w r i t e r i s the blend of s u b stantive knowledge AND the ability t o w r i t e with the goal of simplification. H e r e the technical w r i t e r i s on s u r e r ground in his c l a i m f o r s p e cial recognition. He i s not r e q u i r e d t o have the Ph.D. in biology in o r d e r to w r i t e in the life s c i e n c e s , n o r i s he expected t o be an e n g i n e e r t o w r i t e competently in the field of e l e c t r o n i c s . Even i f this was the technical w r i t e r ' s laudable goal, the fortunes --or m i s f o r t u n e s --involved in making a living m a y move him f r o m one a r e a of s c i e n c e t o another. But it would help i f the technical w r i t e r p o s s e s s e d a strong background in the b a s i c scientific disciplines and m a t h e m a t i c s . With the understanding of fundamental laws in biology, c h e m i s t r y , p h y s i c s , and m a t h e m a t i c s (and s o m e in the engineering s c i e n c e s ) , he will be a w a r e of v a r i o u s scientific methods; will be able to a p p r e c i a t e the ramifications and new develop m e n t s in basic scientific a r e a s ; will be able to a s k p e r c e p t i v e questions of clarification; will be able t o distinguish (with or without a s s i s t a n c e f r o m the s o u r c e ) between the relevant and the i r r e l e v a n t ; and will b e able to produce m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e m a t e r i a l m o r e a c c u r a t e l y and m o r e quickly. Undoubtedly, a c e r t a i n e l e m e n t of ingenuity and creativity m u s t b e involved. It is often a neat and useful t r i c k t o r e l a t e the unknown t o the known by the u s e of analogy, f o r example. It helps t o b e able t o explain sound waves by r e f e r e n c e t o the ripples c a u s e d by the dropping of a stone in a pool. It helps t o d e s c r i b e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r p r o b l e m s by r e f e r e n c e t o the h e a r t and a r t e r i e s a s the pump and piping s y s t e m of the body. EMPHASIS ON EDUCATION AND TRAINING NEEDED It is c l e a r f r o m the v a r i e t y of definitions p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r that the b a s i c ingredient, c r i t e r i o n , or e a r m a r k of the " p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n ' ' i s f o r m a l , a c a d e m i c training, usually of s o m e length and in g r e a t detail. The need f o r m o r e training in technical and g e n e r a l scientific writing i s u n i v e r s a l l y recognized and r e q u i r e s neither m o d e s t n o r extended elaboration. The author h a s done this e l ~ e w h e r e . ~M~o r e i m p o r t a n t a r e how m u c h and what kind ? The handful of institutions offering c o m p r e hensive t r a i n i n g - - s u c h a s the M a r g a r e t M o r r i s o n College of the C a r n e g i e Institute of Technology; the State Universities of K a n s a s , Iowa, Oklahoma,
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TECHNICAL WRITING AND PROFESSIONAL STATUS
and Colorado; R e n s s e l a e r Polytechnical I n s t i tute; and Simmons College i n Boston--provide c u r r i c u l a i n t e c h n i c a l w r i t i n g , editing, and j o u r n a l i s m . They a r e f r a n k l y tentative and e x p e r i m e n t a l , as they should be. T h e s e institutions a r e t o be commended f o r t h e i r recognition of the need f o r such s t r a t e g i c s e r v i c e s in a t e c h nology-oriented s o c i e t y and f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s in undertaking s u c h t r a i n i n g . However, m o r e institutions a r e needed t o offer a v a r i e t y of a p p r o a c h e s t o technical w r i t ing a t both t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e and g r a d u a t e l e v e l s . P e r h a p s a v a r i a t i o n of engineering cooperative t r a i n i n g ought t o be s e t UP. Since technical w r i t e r s m u s t often "double i n b r a s s , " s o m e e x p o s u r e t o audiovisual and g r a p h i c p r e s entation, typography and layout, reproduction m e t h o d s , and even photography i s r e l e v a n t , though p o s s i b l y not e s s e n t i a l , at l e a s t f o r the p r e sent With enough p r o g r a m s putting differently t r a i n e d g r a d u a t e s t o w o r k i n v a r i o u s s e c t o r s of the economy, i t should not take long to a n s w e r definitely t h e question of what kind of 'person t o hire--the w r i t e r who a c q u i r e s a substantive background o r a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s p e c i a l i s t who i s taught how t o w r i t e . It i s the a u t h o r ' s conviction t h a t those! who c a n w r i t e a r e e a s i l y identified e a r l y in t h e i r a c a d e m i c life. In o r d e r t o be u s e f u l , however, they m u s t know something about what t o w r i t e . If, a s one w r i t e r s u g g e s t s , technical w r i t i n g " i s , in s o m e w a y s , the m o s t difficult of a l l types of writing--explaining a v e r y complicated subject i n a n uncomplicated, lucid, and a c c u r a t e language,''32 then a sophis -
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tication i n t h e s e m a n t i c s and nuances of t h e English language i s not enough. At l e a s t half of the t e c h n i c a l w r i t e r ' s a c a d e m i c t r a i n i n g should be i n scientific and technological subject m a t t e r . A full d e s c r i p t i o n and c r i t i q u e of t h e c u r rently available technical writing c u r r i c u l a a r e needed. An equally detailed d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s of m a j o r v a r i e t i e s of technical writing on the job a r e a l s o needed.33 The f r a n k r e a c tions of r e c e n t g r a d u a t e s f r o m such c u r r i c u l a should be solicited. Means of encouraging m a j o r institutions of higher education t o i n s t i t u t e s u c h t r a i n i n g should be explored actively.
IN CONCLUSION The s e a r c h of t h e technical w r i t e r f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l standing and s t a t u s has been examined f r o m a n u m b e r of points of view. The psychological, h i s t o r i c a l , and economic r e a s o n s f o r t h i s striving have been noted and justified. It a p p e a r s that "profession" and "prof e s sional p e r s o n " a r e ill-defined. Even a s v a r i o u s l y s t a t e d , the c u r r e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s and definitions of "profession" s e e m i n c r e a s i n g l y outmoded and m e a n i n g l e s s . At the s a m e t i m e , t h e technic a l w r i t e r himself r e q u i r e s m o r e specific d e lineation. The one m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n to which technical w r i t e r s can profitably a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s i s that of s p e c i a l i z e d , a c a d e m i c education and t r a i n i n g . The i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s of s u c h training m u s t be m o r e c l e a r l y identified, the p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l s defined, and institutions encouraged t o provide t h e b a s i c competencies a g r e e d upon.
REFERENCES See, for example, ithe guest editorial by H. C. McDaniel, January, 1960 issue. "The most important problem facing the members of this s x i e t y today is achieving professional recognition, David McKay Company, New York, N.Y. 1959. See also William H. Whyte, Jr., "The Organization Man." Doubleday Anchor Books, New York, N.Y., 1'357. See also A. S. Watson, "The Psychology of the Professional Self-Image, Chemical and E n g h e s n g -News, 38, 84, 86, E18 (March 21, 1960). (3) By Cameron Hawley, Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass., 1952. Also in paperback #edition. ( 4) "The White Collar,'' 1951, and "The Power Elite," 1956, both by C. Wright Mills, and published by Oxford University Press, Fairlawn, New Jersey. ( 5) For example, H. 0. Ronken and P. Q Lawrence, "Administering Changes: A Case :Study of Human Relations in a Factory,'' Harvard University, Boston, Mass,, Graduate School of Business Administration, 1952. Available in paperback edition as a Doubleday Anchor Book, No. A16, 1953, New York, N. Y. See. for examole. "Professional Attitudes'' and "Social Values in Professional Choice., Chemical and Engineering News, 38, 7 ff. (January 25, 1960) and 1 0 9 ff. (March 7, 1960). respectively. Definitions, Sectim 2. par, 12, 'Title I, Amendmen; of National Labor Relations Act, Public Law 101--80th Congress. Section 541.300, Definition of "Professional, in Explanatory Bulletin, Title 29, Part 541, "Defining the Terms," 1959 reprint, U. S. Department of Labor, Washington 25, D. C. Issue of August. 1957, page 15. Vannevar Bush, "Prof&si&al Collaboration," Science, 125, 50 (January 11. 1957). Ibid., p. 51. 'I
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Morris L. Cogan, "Toward A Definition of Profession," The Harvard Educational Review, 2, 33-50 (Winter, 1953). This is an excellent article and has a long 51-item list of references. "Is Social Work a Profession? School and Society, 1,904 (June 26, 1915). Byrne J. Horton, "The Professor, " Scientific Monthly, 3, 164 (1944). Clifford F. Rassweiler, "Marks of the Professional Man," Chemical and Engineering News, 35, pp. 34-36 (July 22, 1957). Eric A. Walker, "ASEE Can Meet the Challenge-Through Reorientation," Journal of Engineering Education, E, 125-126 (November, 1959). Ibid., p. 126. E. L. Chandler, "Elements of Professionalism for the Engineer, Civil Engineering, March 1958, page 33 (voL p. 163). Quoted in Sidney M. Cantor, "Professional Attitudes, " Chemical and Engineering News, 9,9 (January 25, 1960). Robert Ulich, "Crisis and Hope in American Education, Beacon Press, Boston, Mass., 1951, p. 133. Carl E. Lindstrom, "The Public and the Professions," Public Relations Journal, 22 (February, 1959). Morris L. Cogan, see footnote 13. Morris L. Cogan, "The Problem of Defining a Profession, Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 2 9 7 . 0 7 (January, 1955). Earl J. McGrath,'"Liberal Education in the Professions,'' Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y., 1959, D. 61. Morris'L. Cogan, "Toward a Definition of Profession," 2 Harvard Educational Review, 23, 47 (Winter, 1953); italics mine.
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ISRAEL LIGHT
Bernard Ross, "Social Values in Professional Choices, " Chemical and Engineering News, 38, 113 (March I, 1960). Morris L. Cogan, "The Problem of Defining a Profession, " ref. 24, p. 109. Quoted in L. R Hafstad. "Science, Technology, and Society," American Scientist, 45- 164 (March; 1957). See, for example, those written by Ulman and Gould, Ball and Williams, Nelson, Bickle and Houp. Emberger and Hall, Trelease; and in medical writing, those of Hewitt,
(31) (32) (33)
Davidson, Fishbein, Cross, and Jordan and Shepard. Israel Light, "Science Writing: Status and Needs," Journalism 1 , 53-60 (Winter, 1960). Quarterly, 2 Richard Rutter, "Technical Books Explain New Age," New York Times, Section 3, page 1, March 21, 1960. m T W P chapter-iskngaged in a survey to determine the types of technical writing positions and training programs found in industry, see STWE Newsletter, 2, no. 2, (March 1960).
BOOK REVIEW Science Information P e r s o n n e l , by Leonard Cohen and Kenneth C r a v e n , Science I n f o r m a tion, P.O.Box 624, Radio City Station, New York 19, N. Y . 1961 74 t vi pp. $1.50 T h i s booklet i s the r e p o r t of a study p e r f o r m e d under a s u b c o n t r a c t with the Modern Language A s s o c i a t i o n of A m e r i c a f o r the United States Office of Education, D e p a r t m e n t of Health, Education, and Welfare, and published under the s u p p o r t of the National S c i e n c e Foundation. The study w a s prompted by the C o m m i s s i o p e r of E d u c a t i o n ' s obligation to establish the need i n the United States f o r i n c r e a s e d i n s t r u c t i o n s i n foreign languages. S o m e w h e r e along the line, the study w a s broadened t o include t h e national need for s c i e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n p e r s o n n e l .
To m e e t t h e s e two objectives, a questionn a i r e w a s m a i l e d to selected organizations, i n t e r v i e w s w e r e undertaken, and a symposium on the subject was held in which t h i r t e e n people m e t with the two authors. T h e s e a r e the s o u r c e m a t e r i a l for the contents of this booklet and f r o m which r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e m a d e and conclusions r e a c h e d . T h e r e w e r e 207 r e p l i e s to the questionnaire. Although the r e s p o n d e n t s a r e l i s t e d , the questions a s k e d a r e not. The m a j o r i t y of the r e s p o n d e n t s and m e m b e r s of the symposium w e r e l i b r a r i a n s and special l i b r a r i a n s f r o m industry, i n s t i t u t e s , foundations, public l i b r a r i e s , university l i b r a r i e s , governm e n t agencies, l i b r a r y schools, and p r o f e s s i o n a l organizations. Most of the expository writing, however, a p p e a r s to be based on the r e s u l t s of the i n t e r v i e w s and the symposium.
DIVISION OF CHEMICAL LITERATURE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY Officers for October 1961-October 1962 Chairman:
F r e d R. Whaley, Linde Company
C h a i r m a n - Elect:
Dean F. G a m b l e , M i l e s L a b o r a t o r y
Secretary:
B a r b a r a M. D a v i s , Godfrey L. Cabot, Inc.
Assistant Secretary:
L e e N. S t a r k e r , L e d e r l e L a b o r a t o r i e s
Treasurer:
Helen F. G i n s b e r g , S c h e r i n g Corp.
Past Chairman:
H e r m a n Skolnik, H e r c u l e s Powder Company
Councilors:
Ben H. Weil, E s s o R e s e a r c h and Engineering Co. F r e d J. B a s s e t t , Upjohn Company
