In the Classroom
Techniques To Enhance Instructors’ Teaching Effectiveness with Chemistry Students Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired Cary Supalo Department of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802;
[email protected] This paper presents techniques for instructors and suggestions for chemistry students who are blind and visually impaired discerned from my experiences as an undergraduate student at Purdue University. I have also consulted with other blind and visually impaired students taking chemistry classes at similar post-secondary institutions across the United States. Included here are tips for blind and visually impaired students studying chemistry, as well as suggestions for chemistry instructors teaching chemistry in this context. Many of the difficulties of learning chemistry with low or no sight, while seemingly obvious, are often overlooked by instructors who take eyesight for granted. The intent of these remarks is to share successful ideas from a number of chemistry students who are blind or visually impaired. These “field-tested” ideas provide suggestions and real-world perspectives for developing effective teaching and learning strategies and fostering a student–instructor relationship that works well. Suggestions to Blind Students in Lecture Setting
Techniques for Taking Notes during Lectures Blind students use the sense of hearing extensively in large lecture situations. Therefore, it is a good idea for students with low or no sight to sit near the front of the classroom to improve the liklihood of accurately hearing the instructor’s lecture. This also makes it easier for students to ask questions of the instructor either during the lecture or immediately following the lecture. Many blind students use portable note-taking devices or a slate and stylus to take notes in lecture (Figures 1 and 2). The slate has a metal template with Braille cell dot matrices. Braille dots are created on the reverse side of an inserted piece of Braille paper and written from right to left using a stylus to impress the Braille dots. These devices are good for taking down text-based notes; however, with the exception of the slate and stylus, they have limitations in their ability to take down mathematical and chemical expressions. (This topic is discussed subsequently.) Some blind students bring a sighted note taker to lecture to take print notes for them. The blind student then has the problem of converting the printed handwritten notes into a usable format. This conversion can be done several ways; whatever the process, it usually involves a substantial time investment on the student’s part. Blind students have access to scanning software packages that can scan typed printed documents and convert them to speech output for the student to listen to. This, however, is not possible with handwritten documents. In this case, the student would have to take the handwritten notes and have someone else read them aloud to the blind student who would then transcribe the notes into Braille or other desired format (1). I found this process of note conversion to be tedious, but necessary in order for me to be able to study the lecture material and achieve success in the course. www.JCE.DivCHED.org
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Some people ask about recording lectures on tape or on other digital audio storage devices. This method may work for some, however it should only be used on a limited scale. An audio recording is a good substitute for obtaining lecture materials missed because of absence, yet this should not be the primary method for taking notes. A student using this method is, in essence, sitting through lecture again at a later time and place. If instructors were not able to articulate everything verbally, this would present the student with an incomplete set of notes. Therefore, classroom attendance and asking occasional questions of clarification can help to facilitate the learning. It has been my experience that by taking your own notes, you understand the material better.
Techniques for Acquiring Figures, Drawings, Graphs, and Diagrams during Lectures Visual illustrations presented during the lecture, whether on posters, transparencies, or chalkboard, need to be converted to tactile form. One of the most economical ways to
Figure 1. Examples of two portable note-taking devices that are commonly used in the classroom by students with low or no sight. Left: The BrailleNote QT32 from Humanware. Designed to have text-to-speech output as well as a refreshable Braille capability, this note taker offers output in both speech and Braille formats. Right: The Pacmate from Freedom Scientific serves as an equivalent tool to a personal data assistant (PDA) for a blind or visually impaired person. This note taker features both text-to-speech output and refreshable Braille with an optional attachment to display Braille.
Figure 2. Example of a slate, stylus, and a sample page produced in Braille.
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Figure 3. Example of a tracing wheel and a tactile drawing of a methyl cyclohexane structure produced using a tracing wheel as described in the text. Tracing wheels are commonly available at fabric or department stores.
Figure 4. Example of a hot glue gun and tactile drawing created by using the hot glue gun to draw the raised lines onto the Braille page. Hot glue guns are commonly available at fabric and department stores.
Figure 5. Example of a Thermo-Pen from Repro-Tronics used to create raised-line drawings on Flexi-Paper, a polymer-based material. (This image is reproduced from the Repro-Tronics Web site.1)
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produce tactile drawings in a timely manner is to use a tracing wheel and a sheet of Braille paper (which is heavier and stiffer than typical note or photocopy paper) with a rubber mouse pad underneath (Figure 3). The image should be drawn with a pencil or pen first in an inverted manner on the Braille page, and, keeping in mind that Braille takes up more space than regular type, these diagrams typically have to be larger then those of a regular printed image. Using either a Braillewriter or a slate and stylus (Figures 1 and 2), the blind student with sighted assistance can insert Braille labels directly onto the image. Once that is completed, the sighted person can then trace the image using the tracing wheel. The image is intentionally drawn in an inverted manner so that when the tracing wheel step is applied, the image will be raised on the opposite side of the Braille page. When a slate and stylus is used to put Braille labels onto the image, it too uses a similar application where the Braille is produced on the opposite side of the page. Alternatively, a Braillewriter may be used for the addition of Braille on the front side of the page directly onto the image. Another easy way to produce low-cost, tactile drawings is to reproduce the image in its proper orientation from left to right in print form on a sheet of Braille paper. This image can then be placed into a Braillewriter to be labeled in Braille on the side of the hand-drawn image. A hot glue gun can then be used to draw the raised lines onto the Braille page (Figure 4). This technique is best implemented by simply having a reader (a person who is paid to read or provide access to printed media) trace these images in an enlarged format on Braille pages independently of the blind student. Once this is completed, the blind student and the reader meet to label the images in Braille using a Braillewriter or slate and stylus. The reader then uses the hot glue gun like a pen to trace over the images; as the glue dries a raised bead of glue adheres to the page, making the image tactile. It is best if these tactile figures are labeled clearly by lecture date or textbook chapter. Course instructors can assist blind and visually impaired students by providing either enlarged copies of the transparencies that are being used during each lecture or quickly sketched tactile drawings of the graphs that are being presented. Instructors and students should agree on a tactile labeling method at the beginning of the course. An example would be to put 1 vertical line in the upper right hand corner of the page for figure 1, two vertical lines in the upper right hand corner for figure 2, and so on. It is important for instructors to verbally refer to these figures as figure 1, figure 2, and so on while they are lecturing. These tactile drawings can be drawn quickly without the use of Braille by using either the tracing wheel technique or a thermo raised-line drawing pen available from Repro-Tronics (Figures 4 and 5). The thermo raised-line drawing pen is used on a special polymer-based paper that reacts to the heat being produced by the tip of the pen. Students keep these figures and refer to them as the instructor discusses them during lecture using the assigned figure numbers. The student can then archive the figures into a folder storing system after the lecture for review at a later time. Drawing up these tactile figures should not take more than five minutes or so to complete (2). When
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sighted students are given access to in-class overheads and figures—by way of a course Web site or handouts—this can assist their learning as well. I found the tracing wheel method of producing tactile graphs to be very beneficial during my general chemistry courses. When I worked with a reader, we were able to produce the figures from the textbook and the lecture notes together. For organic chemistry classes, I found the hot glue gun method to be more beneficial because of the larger number of graphs that had to be produced. When meeting with the reader we would Braille label each organic molecular figure together and the reader would then trace the figures with hot glue. I would organize the completed tactile figures by either chapter from the textbook, or date of lecture. This system made them easier to refer to later. The hand sketches of lecture overheads assisted me greatly in my physical chemistry classes. Since my instructors typically did not know what graphs they were going to use until just before lecture, they agreed to hand sketch these figures using the Repro-tronic heat pen. They would then hand me the figures at the beginning of lecture and would verbally refer to them by number as was mentioned above. This allowed me to more directly interact in classroom discussions by asking questions about the theory being presented. If for some reason I was unable to attend class that day, I would have to produce these graphs on my own similar to what a sighted person would have to do. Expressing Mathematical and Chemical Equations When writing mathematical or chemical equations on the chalkboard during lecture, it is important for instructors to verbally articulate the expressions being written, clearly defining fractional breaks, quantities, and other mathematical operations. Here is an example of an expression with possible ambiguities: x 2 ⫹ y 2/z 3 ⫹ 1 can be interpreted in several ways. It could be (x 2 ⫹ y 2)/(z 3 ⫹ 1) or it could be x 2 ⫹ (y 2/z 3) ⫹ 1 This process of verbally describing what is written can be done by incorporating the words “numerator”, “denominator”, “quantity”, and so on into your discussions. For example, the algebraic expression can be expressed: “The numerator quantity x 2 ⫹ y 2 over denominator quantity z 3 plus 1 that equals” and so on. Articulating the expression this way eliminates any possible ambiguities (3). When articulating chemical expressions several details must be kept in mind to communicate clearly. It is important to use specific compound names for topics like stoichiometry. It is helpful to verbally state which spectator ions are being cancelled out from both sides of a chemical expression instead of simply referring to them as spectator ions. Also, when chemical expressions have multiple positively or negatively charged ions incorporated into them, it is critical to indicate the number of each ion present instead of simply using
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the common name. For example, Na2SO4 can best be described by saying “N a 2 S O 4” instead of saying sodium sulfate. This will allow the blind student to have an experience similar to that of a sighted student. An appropriate method for teaching proper nomenclature would be to first read the letters used in the ion or chemical formula, and follow up with the proper name of the compound or ion. A number of educational researchers have proven that verbally articulating written materials in a lecture setting enhances all students’ ability to learn and remember material being presented (4–6). This may be because of the visual as well as aural reinforcement of the material being presented. Instructors who were willing to read the chemical symbols verbally, versus those who would not, enhanced my learning experiences. Textbooks and Course Handouts Obtaining large-print and Brailled textbooks can be difficult. The availability of Braille books can be determined by searching the Louis Braille book database at the American Printing House for the Blind’s Web site.2 After entering the ISBN number for the textbooks needed, the database will indicate whether the book has been Brailled by one of the many hundreds of transcribers in the United States. The system also gives the contact information for the transcriber or library that has the textbook if it is available. Book prices can be negotiated between the post-secondary institution’s disability services department and the Braille transcriber. If the textbook is not available, an instructor or the student can enquire to find out whether there are financial resources available through the post-secondary institution’s disability services office or chemistry department to pay for the cost of transcription of the textbook. Keep in mind that textbooks take a minimum of three to six months on average to transcribe. Therefore, planning and lead-time play critical roles in whether or not a blind student obtains a textbook in Braille on time. It is also possible to provide a textbook in Braille in installments if there is not enough lead-time to complete the entire text all at once. If a student with low or no sight is enrolling in a chemistry course, the course syllabus should be made available as soon as possible. Large-print books can also be found through online databases. However, enlarging the text for a textbook that does not have a large-print version available can be done simply by utilizing a high quality copier and legal size sheets of paper and either a bookbinder or folder organizing system. It is critical that the binding system that is adopted for either the Braille or large-print book is consistent throughout the entire course. An amendment to the U.S. Copyright Act in 1996 allows for copyrighted books, articles, and other materials to be converted into large print, Braille, audiotape, and other electronic formats for use by people who are blind and visually impaired (7). Also, the responsibility of providing funds to purchase such materials primarily falls on the post-secondary institution offering the course or program that is being taught. Additional funds may be sought from the student’s vocational rehabilitation counselor if the student is a client of a rehabilitation agency. These agencies vary in the services provided, depending on the student’s state where they
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have a case file open. Other philanthropic organizations like local Lions Clubs3 can also be solicited for funding if other methods are exhausted. Otherwise, if transcribing the assigned book into Braille is not possible, an option may be to obtain an alternate textbook that is available in Braille. The cost for Braille duplication is significantly less than Braille transcription. Many textbooks, particularly in the sciences, cover the same material. One may emphasize some portion of the subject matter or may cover it in a different order but the principles are all the same and one good text may cover them as well as the next. An alternative Brailled text should be chosen if an instructor cannot find the assigned course textbook available in Braille. Print copies of many of these texts are free to instructors from the publishers, particularly if they explain why they are necessary. They can then assign the student the appropriate reading material in the alternate Brailled textbook. This will require some more work for the instructor, but will be worth the time investment based on the student’s performance. It is important for blind and visually impaired students to receive their course handouts in the formats of their preferred media. A preferred media type could be Braille, large print, on tape, electronically, or some other manner. An illustration of a Braille general chemistry textbook is shown in Figure 6. Having materials available in HTML and other electronic formats available through course Web sites also can improve a blind student’s access to information. However, images are not easily read by screen reading software that provides the speech output for the computer. PDF files are now becoming more accessible, however progress still needs to be made in order for a blind student to have true equal access to these online documents. A student may request that another alternative format of a course file be provided to better suit the student’s screen reading software and be more userfriendly (1). It was beneficial for me to access files of lecture notes and other course handouts on class Web sites during
Figure 6. Photograph of a seventy-volume Braille version of Raymond Chang’s 1991 hardcover general chemistry textbook (8); the arrow indicates the standard edition of that textbook for comparison.
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my graduate coursework in chemistry at Pennsylvania State University. Quizzes and Exams Examinations can be given in a similar manner. Exams can be given in an electronic format, Braille format, large print, or on audiotape. These are the most common formats requested. Blind students may also use readers to act as their eyes on a print exam. In this case a reader reads the exam to the blind student who then Brailles the exam and performs the requested task. At the end of his or her work on the question, or possibly at the conclusion of the exam, the blind student then dictates the solution or response to the reader. On multiple-choice exams, this feedback method does not take very long. However, exams graded on partial credit can be difficult as far as the level of reverse translation from Braille to print required, but it can be done. Extra time is usually given to allow for blind students to perform these extra tasks. Blind students, if required, can produce graphical responses a number of different ways. They can employ the graphing apparatus themselves and sketch the graphs accordingly. Many times the raised graphics can also be seen clearly by a sighted reader. The blind student may also choose to describe the graph to a scribe, and they in turn would draw the graph as the student has specified. These methods can also be used on homework assignments. It is best if blind students can utilize a reader–scribe of their choice on the examination to work most efficiently. An instructor may choose to have the exam proctored. It is common for blind students to take their examinations in a place other than the regular examination room because of discussions needed between the reader–scribe and the student. Also, devices such as Perkins Braillewriters and slate and stylus produce a fair amount of noise and may be distracting to other students taking an exam. Therefore, it is recommended that blind students be permitted to take their examinations in smaller rooms away from other students who may be taking the examination. This however is not a requirement (1). Allowing a blind student to take their exam near the location and at approximately the same time as the regular exam is beneficial because a teaching assistant or professor can be available for questions of clarification. Most campuses have a disabled student services (DSS) office to facilitate learning and teaching for students who have disabilities. While a DSS office may have facilities for students to take tests, a blind student would be disadvantaged by taking the exam at a different time at a location in the DSS office, because they would not be informed of errors discovered by other students taking the exam after it has been handed out. DSS personnel usually are not knowledgeable on the material on an examination and cannot comment on the accuracy of the presentation. A typical response that I would receive while taking the exam at a DSS testing facility was, “I have no clue, but I can try to call the instructor for you.” Sometimes the staff successfully found the answer to my question, although this took a long time. Many times the DSS staff were unable to obtain an answer and I only had clarifications after the exams were graded.
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Student–Instructor Relationships and Campus Services for Students with Disabilities
Laboratory Exercises and Safety Issues Blind and visually impaired students should participate in the laboratory portions of chemistry courses. These important components of many undergraduate courses can be undertaken in a number of different ways. If a student is required to work as an individual in the laboratory exercise of a course, blind and visually impaired students can work with sighted laboratory assistants who are familiar with laboratory safety procedures. These sighted laboratory assistants need not be required to have taken the same class in advance if they can be properly trained at the outset. All students, including lab assistants, should be required to go through lab safety training and review the signed paperwork associated with that course. A lab assistant’s main role is to perform the tasks that the blind student specifies. These tasks can include equipment setup, pouring chemicals, and efforts to maintain laboratory safety. It is also possible for a blind student to work as a part of a group. In labs where different tasks are designated, the blind student can fulfill tasks that do not require direct contact with chemicals. Some example tasks include conducting quality assurance, articulating hypothetical approaches, setting up equipment, and so on. It is important for blind students to play a critical role in the group’s successes and failures in the laboratory. Blind students should be confident in their abilities to hypothesize chemical theories and test them in the laboratory. In a group setting, this may require the need for a lab assistant, but not necessarily. Another central role of lab assistants is to ensure the safety of blind and visually impaired students and their classmates in the lab. For example, if a blind student has placed a graduated cylinder near the edge of the workbench, the lab assistant should point out that this was not a good place to put the cylinder, and it should be moved to a more appropriate place. Before a lab course begins in any given semester, blind and visually impaired students should receive a one-on-one orientation to the laboratory with the faculty member or teaching assistant responsible for the class. While it is important for all students to be familiar with laboratory safety and the physical setting of the lab, it is crucial that blind and visually impaired students know the locations of these elements (1) in every laboratory they use: • The nearest safety shower • All deionized water and regular tap water spigots • All common hoods, drawers, and reagents • Other pieces of laboratory equipment • Fire alarms and telphones or intercom devices • Exits
Heat emitted by open flames can usually be felt some distance from the location of the actual flame, indicating to blind students where not to put their hands and arms when performing a lab experiment. Lab assistants can also tell blind and visually impaired students where a potential hazard is located, forestalling any question or ambiguity on the part of the students.
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The student–instructor relationship is a valuable part of the college experience, irrespective of a student’s attributes. For blind and visually impaired students developing this relationship is especially important: blind students and instructors need to discuss how the class is going, how material is being presented, and if the students’ learning is occurring at a normal pace. Student–instructor relationships play an important role in figuring out ways to provide accommodations for blind and visually impaired students in the course. In recent years most colleges and universities in the U.S. have instituted campus-wide efforts to facilitate learning for students with disabilities. Frequently referred to as the disabled student services (DSS) office, these offices have started intervening on behalf of students with disabilities to work with instructors to provide reasonable accommodations within a course. When the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (9) was first written, the DSS office was conceived to be a supplemental entity providing services that would otherwise not be available; namely, books and other course materials in Braille or large print, extra time on exams, and facilities to take exams in if no other suitable location can be identified. DSS offices were envisioned to assist disabled students in becoming advocates for themselves in negotiating their own accommodations with each instructor. The DSS office would collect documentation verifying the disability from a student and discuss some possible accommodations to assist that student in a course of study. Many times this would take the form of a letter to faculty with disabled students in their classes. The most recent trend, however, is that the DSS office takes over the role of determining accommodations, provisions, and responsibilities and discourages students with disabilities from identifying or negotiating accommodations directly with their instructors. In this circumstance, instructors often respond to a student’s request with the pronouncement “We have a DSS office, go to them for what you need because I cannot help you.” Deferring responsibilities to the DSS office detracts from students’ ability to learn more about themselves, what accommodations are needed, and problem solving through situations when obstacles arise. The lag time between the DSS–instructor interaction generally takes longer than a direct discussion between student and instructor since the student and instructor interact with each other on an almost daily basis through class participation, unlike the instructor and DSS staff. The rapport between the student and the instructor that can be established will also further facilitate a trust in accommodations requests and more clearly explain to the instructor what disabled students’ needs are. A healthy student–instructor relationship will also further prepare instructors for teaching other disabled students in subsequent classes. Undertaking Graduate Study Attending graduate school has presented me with specific challenges to address. Obtaining funding to support my laboratory research was one such challenge. I first received fund-
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ing from my vocational rehabilitation counselor, but this was short-lived. I then worked out an agreement where the cost of employing a lab technician to assist me was divided into thirds: my research advisor, the chemistry department, and the DSS office at Penn State each paid one-third. Having this assistance (even at a higher rate of pay to find someone with the appropriate qualifications) was necessary for me to successfully accomplish all the tasks graduate work represents. I needed, and found, a lab technician who was reliable and could work with me outside of our normally scheduled times when research experiments had finished running or had to be started. This flexibility in schedule was very necessary and valuable towards my work. As far as my graduate courses were concerned, I used many of the strategies described above. One of my greatest obstacles in graduate school to date is accessing literature and being able to read papers on a regular basis. Accessibility to files available in electronic formats has revolutionized my ability to read papers. Files still need to be converted from a PDF format to another form, such as a Microsoft Word file, which is then easy to read using a screen reading software package. Access to SciFinder Scholar currently is not possible, but I hope to some day gain access to this most powerful research tool by means of screen reader access, allowing me to perform my own literature searches independent of sighted assistance. I am committed to eliminating the need for sighted assistance in my research. This includes bench chemistry as well as literature searches. This will be done by further modifying laboratory research tools, making them speech-friendly. However, it will take some time before this is the case. All of my graduate requirements are the same as those of my colleagues; no exceptions were given in my program. Taking an oral comprehensive exam, taking all necessary courses, and giving seminars and writing research proposals were all done using the tools described above. Once I have completed graduate work, I intend to take the tools and skills developed in graduate school into the workplace, further modifying and enhancing my skills as a blind research chemist. Summary The techniques described here have been tried by a number of blind students enrolled in chemistry classes at the post-
A Brief Biography—Cary Supalo I have been an active member of the National Federation of the Blind (NFB) since I graduated from high school in 1993. Discovering a nationwide network of blind persons inspired me to be all I can be. Through encouragement from friends and faculty members at Purdue University, I chose to study chemistry as my major. The passion that I developed for chemistry was further facilitated by my involvement in the Alpha Chi Sigma fraternity in 1997. I graduated with a bachelor of science degree in chemistry from Purdue in the spring of 1999, and started graduate studies in chemistry at Pennsylvania State University that fall.
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secondary level in the U.S. throughout the second half of the 1990s. All of these techniques can be supplemented by new adaptive technologies that become available over time. Maintaining the same course evaluation requirements for students who are sighted and students with no or low sight is essential for grade validation and student confidence in the classroom. Additionally, the suggestions for classroom and laboratory techniques provided in ref 1 are useful. Notes 1. Thermo-Pen I and II Web site. http://www.repro-tronics.com/ thermo.html (accessed May 2005). 2. American Printing House for the Blind Home Page. http:// www.aph.org/ (accessed May 2005). 3. Lions Clubs Vision Programs. http://www.lionsclubs.org/EN/ content/vision_index.shtml (accessed May 2005).
Literature Cited 1. Miner, D. L.; Nieman, R.; Swanson, A. B.; Woods, M. Teaching Chemistry to Students with Disabilities: A Manual for High Schools, Colleges, and Graduate Programs, 4th ed.; The American Chemical Society: Washington DC, 2000. 2. Supalo, C. Future Reflections 2002, 21 (2), 26–29. http:// www.nfb.org/fr/fr8/frsf0210.htm (accessed May 2005). 3. Nemeth, A. Mathspeak. http://www.rit.edu/~easi/easisem/ talkmath.htm (accessed May 2005). 4. Ormond, J. E. Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 3rd ed.; Merrill/Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2000; pp 201–202. 5. Wood, J. W. Mainstreaming: A Practical Approach for Teachers; Merrill/Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1989; pp 380– 381. 6. Patton, J. R.; Payne, J. S.; Kauffman, J. M.; Brown, G. B.; Payne, R. A. Exceptional Children in Focus, 4th ed.; Merrill/ Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1987; p 172. 7. U. S. Copyright Act of 1976 As Amended in 1996. Public Law 104-197, 1996. http://www.loc.gov/nls/reference/factsheets/ copyright.html (accessed May 2005). 8. Chang, R. Chemistry, 4th ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1991. 9. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 101st Cong., 2d sess., 23 January 1990. http://www.ada.gov/ (accessed Jun 2005).
Through my involvement in the NFB, I have had the opportunity to hold a number of leadership positions in several states, some of which involved working with and mentoring other blind and visually impaired students. I have always loved helping blind students expand their comfort zones, assisting them to stretch their minds to go beyond societal limitations placed on them, and encouraging them to strive to follow their dreams. NFB’s philosophy is that through proper training and opportunity, a blind person can reduce blindness to being nothing more than a mere nuisance. Putting this philosophy into practice is a driving force behind my career. To all my colleagues in the chemical sciences, I look forward to working with you in the years to come.
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