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V01..6, K O . 9
TEE J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
I-Microscopic examination 2-Oil 3-Refractive index of t h e oil a t z j o C. 4-Iodine number of t h e oil i n some cases The oil (fat) was determined b y t h e official ether extraction method, using 2 grams of t h e b u t t e r a n d extracting with anhydrous ether. T h e Harding-Perkin method’ was tried b u t a n emulsion formed which would not break u p , so we could n o t use i t . A larger q u a n t i t y , 2 0 t o 2 5 grams, was extracted with ether for use in determining t h e constants of t h e oil. Because of t h e smallness of t h e sample i t was found impracticable t o obtain t h e oil b y pressing. Microscopic examinations did n o t reveal t h e presence of a n y foreign starch in a n y of t h e samples.
crumb is accompanied b y similar a n d almost exactly parallel loss of t,he moisture content of t h e crust. Observations t o t h e contrary have perhaps been i n error because of t h e usual custom of comparing t h e feel of t h e wrapped a n d unwrapped loaves on successive days, instead of comparing t h e texture of t h e crust of t h e wrapped loaf with t h e crust of a freshly baked loaf. T h e authors’ conclusions as t o t h e loss of moist u r e , while somewhat surprising, appear t o be fully justified b y t h e results of t h e numerous experiments. 11-It has long been held t h a t bread on keeping develops a n increasing acidity which is customarily expressed as lactic acid. T h e work of White above referred t o disputes t h i s belief. The work of t h e a u thors shows conclusively t h a t lactic acid acidity does not develop either i n t h e unwrapped or wrapped loaf in t h e case of ordinary breads within six days a f t e r baking. A reference t o t h e graphic chart clearly shows t h a t t h e acid content remains almost constant, varying 6 u t little throughout t h e period during which t h e loaves were under observation. 111-The use of semi-porous a n d paraffin wrappers does not injure t h e quality of t h e loaf after t h e t h i r d d a y . Up t o t h a t time t h e keeping quality both as t o condition of crumb, flavor a n d odor is enhanced b y t h e use of t h e wrappers. Unwrapped bread loses its freshness after t h e first d a y . B u t little difference is observed in t h e condition of t h e straight dough p a n bread, straight dough rye, sponge dough rye bread a n d straight dough Vienna hearth bread. Bohemian rye sponge dough wrapped or unwrapped bread is not of satisfactory quality on a n d after t h e t h i r d day.
TABLEI h-umber
90504 90505 505 10
Punch
x-4
DZPARTMENT OF FOOD A N D DRUOS I N D I A N A S T A T E BOARD OF HEALTH INDIANAPOLIS
SOME DATA ON PEANUT BUTTER By C. A. A U T T Received June 1 , 19 14
Large quantities of shelled peanuts have been used during recent years for t h e manufacture of peanut b u t t e r . I t is made i n sanitary factories a n d packed in jars of tins holding from three ounces t o five pounds. T h e peanuts are shelled, roasted moderately, a n d t h e n fanned t o remove t h e outer covering. They are t h e n reduced t o a butter-like consistency b y large grinders working on t h e same principle as t h e small family food grinder. F r o m t h e grinder t h e b u t t e r is fed directly into a tin t u b e t h a t fills t h e container. Some manufacturers salt their product; others market i t unsalted. Packed in this manner it keeps almost indefinitely and makes a pleasant variety for luncheons, picnic menus, camping supplies, a n d regular household use. I n connection with t h e food control work of Kansas i t was suggested t h a t certain manufacturers were incorporating oils. other t h a n t h a t occurring naturally i n t h e peanut, i n t h e manufacture of their peanut butter. Samples of all t h e brands of peanut b u t t e r sold on t h e Kansas market were taken, in order t h a t information might be obtained on this point. The following determinations were made:
Brand Beechnut Beechnut Clubhouse Heinz Defiance Puritanna Telmo Beechnut Royal Rusdun Lee Derby Bayle Symns Larkin Pickwick Sunburst Orchid Home Folk Imperial
.
Monarch Armour
Percentage of oil 49.12 54.02 49,66 46.44 52.37 49.32 51.20 50.03 50.17 49 04 47. 28 51.16 52.63 52.60 51.64 46.63 49.16 50.67 50.16 53.64 50.00 47.18 44.74
Refractive index a t 25’ C .
Iodine value (Hubl) 93.72 93.50
..... .....
94.36
.....
92.40 1 ,4684
1.4680 1.4685 1 ,4684 1 ,4694 1 ,4688 1.4682 1 ,4682 1.4680 1 ,4682 1 ,4680 1.4690 1 ,4682 1.4690 1.4690
.....
88.76 94.36
..... ..... ..... .....
:
93 40
..... ....
88.04
Table I shows t h e results obtained on t h e peanut b u t t e r bought on t h e Kansas market. T h e percentage of oil varies from 46.44 per cent t o 53.64 per cent. The refractive index varies from 1.4680 t o 1.4707 a t 2 5 ’ C. The iodine number runs from 88.76 t o 94.36. Three samples of roasted peanuts reduced t o butterlike consistency gave t h e following results: Percentage of oil Number X-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 . 1 7 X-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2 . 0 3 X-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.65
Refractive index a t 250 c. 1 ,4685 I ,4685 1.4683
Iodine value (Hiibl) 89.9 90.30 88.75
A sample of raw peanuts, after shelling, was divided into four parts, which we designated as A, B, C, a n d D. a n d treated as follows: &-Ground raw. B-Heated a t t h e temperature of boiling water in a steam oven for eight hours. C-Heated i n a n electric oven a t a temperature of 2 j O C. for eight hours. D-Roasted brown i n olive oil over a free flame a n d t h e excess of oil drained from it. Each sample was ground separately a n d as finely as possible. These samples yielded t h e following results: Percentage of oil A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.85 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.09 c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.70 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.48
Sample
Refractive index a t 25O C. 1.4672 1 ,4668 I ,4674 1 ,4620
Leach, in “ F o o d Inspection a n d Analysis,” states 1
THISJ O U R N A L , S, 843.
Sept.. 1914
T H E J O U R N A L O F I,?iDUSTRIAL d N D E Y G I , V E E R I S G C H E M I S T R Y
t h a t peanuts contain 37.48 t o 41.63 per cent of oil. Beattie, in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 376, United States Department of Agriculture, says t h a t t h e oil m a y r u n as high as 50 per cent in some peanuts. These results are evidently on t h e peanuts before roasting; after roasting t h e oil would be higher, due t o a corresponding loss in water. Our results on the manufactured peanut b u t t e r d o not show a n y more oil t h a n m a y occur in the roasted peanut. The U. S. standards for peanut, olive and cottonseed oils as given b y Leach are as follows: Refractive index at 25’ C. P e a n u t . . . . . . . . . . 1.4690 t o 1.4707 Olive.. . . . . . . . . . 1.4660 t o 1.4680 Cottonseed.. . . . . 1.4iO0 t o 1.4725
Iodine value (Hiibl) 57 t o 100 19 to ‘)O 104 t o 110
The iodine value falls well within t h e limits of those given for pure peanut oil. T h e greatest variations are in the refractive index. Considering t h e fact t h a t t h e oils obtained from t h e roasted peanuts give results comparable with t h e manufactured product, one could hardly sa.y t h a t oil h a d been added. T h a t added oil can be detected is seen in t h e lowering of t h e refractive index b y t h e use of olive oil. KANSASSTATE AGRICGLTURAL COLLEGE
,
MANHATTAN
THE INFLUENCE OF SULFUR ON SOIL ACIDITY By H.
CLAY LINT
R.eceived June 2 , 1914
T h e control of parasitic fungi which art: capable of persisting in t h e soil has occupied t h e attention of m a n y scientists and agriculturalists within recent years. T o t h e above t y p e of fungi belongs t h e one causing t h e ordinary scab of t h e potato. Even before this specific organism ( O o s p o r a scabies) h a d been isolated b y Thaxter much work h a d been d0n.e toward devising methods of control. Halstead’ in t h e annual report of t h e New Jersey Experiment Station for 189j reports favbrable results in controlling the potato scab as a result of t h e application of flowers of sulfur t o t h e soil. This work was not continued b y Dr. Halstead, b u t within t h e last year t h e problem has been t a k e n up again. It m a y be well a t this time t o s t a t e some of t h e facts t h a t have been noted on phase of t h e sulfur question relating t o its effect on soil acidity. Researches b y 11. A. Demolon* have shown t h a t on soils of different origin, containing 3 per (cent a n d 2.8 per cent, respectively, of calcium carbonate, there is a great increase in t h e a m o u n t of sulfates due t o t h e addition of sulfur t o t h e soil. He added I per cent of flowers of sulfur t o these soils and incubated t h e m a t z o o C. for forty (days. An analysis of t h e viater extract .gave these relative amounts of sulfates per hundred grams of soil as indicated b y t h e weights of BaSO, given below. Gms. Bas04 XVith sulfur Soil A , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0 970 Soil H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 , 6 1 2
Gms. Bas04 XVithout sulfur 0.062 0.047
Experiments b y the same investigator demonstrated t h a t the oxidation of sulfur was accomplished b y bac1
2
S . J . Exp. Station R e $ , 1895, p . 270. Comfit. r e n d . , 166 (1913). 7 2 5 .
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teria in the soil. Brioux a n d Guerbet’ have gone f u r t h e r a n d not only proven the, bacterial nature of t h e action, b u t have furnished d a t a on t h e influence of various substances-calcium carbonate, saccharose, peptone, etc., when added t o the soil in which t h e sulfur was introduced. I n our recent work under field conditions where as much a s 600 pounds of sulfur was applied per acre i t was noticed t h a t a large amount of t h e sulfur was still present in t h e soil a t digging time, apparently in an unchanged condition. In order t o ascertain facts on t h e rate of oxidation of t h e sulfur in t h e soil a series of tumblers containing I O O gram portions of soil were arranged, one-half containing sulfur, t h e other half without i t . Thirty-three mg. of sulfur, equivalent t o 1000 pounds of sulfur per acre foot (3,000,000 pounds), were added. The soils were made up t o t w e n t y per cent moisture content and covered with Petri dishes. B y t h e addition of sterile water once a week t h e moisture content was practically cons t a n t throughout the experiment. One tumbler containing sulfur mixed with the soil and one not containing sulfur were removed each week and tested for acidity. I n this work t h e Jones2 calcium acetate method of determining soil acidity was used. Preliminary tests comparing t h e Jones method with t h e Yeitch method on a number of soils showed a close correlation, a n d as comparative results only were desired, this method was thought sufficiently accurate. I n t h e following table are included the results of t h e analysis of this first series:
-
Lime requirement in pounds C a 0 per 1 000 000 oounds of soil
Time of incubation Weeks 1
-.
I
n’ithout sulfur
I
A
XVith sulfur 2393
2 3
4 5 6
7
a
9 10 11
4110
From t h e foregoing table i t would appear t h a t the sulfur h a d practically all been oxidized within t h e first eight or nine weeks. There is very little change in t h e acidity after t h e seventh week. Assuming t h a t t h e Jones method has given the correct lime requirements i t is interesting t o note how closely t h e above lime requirements check u p with t h e theoretical. .4n average of t h e lime requirements of the two soils from t h e seventh t o t h e eleventh weeks inclusive gives 2431 pounds for t h e check a n d 4177 pounds for t h e sulfured soils. Obviously t h e difference of I 744 pounds of lime is due t o t h e oxidation of sulfur. By means of t h e following proportion 32 : j 6 : : 1000 : x we find t h a t the C a O equivalent t o the 1000 pounds sulfur per acre would be 1 7 j o . Apparently t h e reason t h a t no further increase in acidity takes place after t h e eighth week is due t o the fact t h a t all of the sulfur has been oxidized. The fact t h a t sulfur causes this increase in acidity 1
Comfit. r e n d . , 156 (1913), 14i6.
Reported a t the 30th Annual Convention A . 0. A . C., Washington, D. C . , r\-ovember, 1913. .’
