The CULTURAL VALUE of CHEM-
ISTRY. in GENERAL EDUCATION* *
B. S. HOPKINS University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
E
DUCATIONAL systems like political organizations have been evolved from primitive beginnings. In its early stages human life was simple, its requirements were few, and its social, political, and educational machinery was unhampered by complexity. As civilization advanced life became more and more complex, and as a result changes were made in these systems in order to meet the ever-increasing demands made upon them. As nations grew up under varying climatic, social, and political environments, there began to be differences of opinion with regard to the most efiective methods of solving such problems. So we find in
* Contribution to the symposium on The Rdle of Chemistry in Education conducted jointly by Section C (Chemistry) and Section Q (Education) of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Pittsburgh. Pa.. Dcc. 27. 1934.
various stages of the history of civilization, educational plans which represented conflicting ideas and diverse ideals. But through the centuries as experience was gained, progress was made and we of the modern world are fond of the belief that we have saved the best from all the civilizations of the past and upon the experiences of our forebears through the ages we have built an educational system which is superior, a t least for our needs, to all that have gone before it. There is no necessity for attempting to trace the historical steps which have led to the twentieth-century educational system in America. But it may be permissible to enumerate a few of the developments which have left their impression upon our methods of training the young. We as teachers have received a rich heritage from our ancestors. From the period of the
Renaissance we have received the doctrine that the classics stand supreme as a training in cultural values; from a later period in Western Europe has come the idea that education and religion are not synonymous; and gradually there followed the popularization of education. From those sturdy pioneers who preferred the hostile shores of a new continent to submission to the arbitrary dictates of authority, we have inherited the principle of free education for all children, supported by a. general property tax. Quickly there followed the establishment of high schools, colleges, and universities, founded npon the theory that higher educatiou, largely at public expense, should be made readily accessible to all. From these small beginnings there has sprung up all oyer the land a system of educatiou of which the American nation can justly be proud. There are two periods in American education in which we should a t this time be especially interested. During the early days the cumculum was mainly grouped around the study of the classics. The cultural value of education was measured in terms of its classical content. At a later period there grew up a feeling that such studies were not practical and that educational training should be along the lines of learning by doing, vocational activities, and specialization in the higher branches. As a result of these demands the study of the classics has all but disappeared from our cumcula and the mania for specialization has penetrated fay down into thelives of those of tender years. What is the meaning of the word "culture!" What constitutes a cultural course of study? What should be the objectives of a cultural course? In what manner should a cultural course affect the living, habits, character, and intellect of an individual? If these questions were propounded to a group of educators it is certain that the replies received would reveal a wide latitude in the interpretations of these items. Consequently it seems to be necessary for the author to state his way of understanding these questions. Perh+ps his viewpoint may be arbitrary, but at any rate it may serve to avoid misunderstandings and may make unnece&ky a long discussion concerning the meaning of the topic which has been assigned h i . The Websterian idea of culture may be grouped about the expressions "improvement by education," "training by discipline," "cultivation of the moral and intellectual nature," and "relinement in manner and taste." It is to be noted that all these ideas deal exclusively with the individual and his mental and moral traits. They apply as well to th e castaway on some isolated island as they do to the dweller in the modern crowded city. Such phrases may have represented the meaning of the word "culture" a generation ago, but there seemsnow to be added another concept which takes account of the consideiation that one of the most vital facts in modern l i e is that we all h:ave neighbors with whom we must be in daily contact. I believe that the word culture today must take into account each individual's obligations to society; "it must humanize his character and intellect"; "it must ntIrture the ability to enter sympatheti-
a l l y into the lives of others" and their "social problems whether these be economic, political, iesthetic or philosophical." A cultural course must, then, develop not merely "an appetite for intellectual attainment and moral excellence" but it must contribute definitely toward open-mindedness, sincerity, an active interest in social betterment, and a productive participation in all enterprises which have as their ultimate goal the uplift of humanity. If these attributes are accepted as representing the lofty ideal toward which our educational program is looking with earnest anticipation, we might find it worth while to ask: what influences are working in the opposite direction? How may non-cultural courses influence the thought and development of youthful minds? What are the characteristics of those factors in our educational system which are to be considered as non-cultural in the impressions which they make? If our humanistic viewpoint is accepted, then it is evident that any influence in education which concerns itself solely with the advancement of the individual's selfish ends may be regarded as non-cultural. There would be included in such a category courses which have a narrowing influence upon the student and those which prevent sympathetic insights into human problems. Such courses may he popular because they give promise of leading to large financial return; they may be recommended because of their intensely "practical" nature and their emphasis upon the learning-by-doing idea or upon highly specialized training in a restricted field. But they fail to arouse an active interest in the affairs of a social race. From these points of view it is evident that no subject in the cumcnlum is of itself either.tobe classed as cultural or nou-cultural. We are not concerned with a question of content since culture is not inherent in the subject matter of any course. The deciding factors are determined by the method of approach, the purpose for which the subject is studied, and the.general attitude of mind which is carried away by the students themselves. Of course it is evident that some subjects lend themselves much more readily to cultural development than others but it is easily imagined that any subject in the curriculum may be made cultural or not as its sponsors- will. Even the most practical professional subjects in engineering, in science, in-law, or in medicine may becpme the vehicles of truly magnificaut training in cultural aspects upon the problems of life. I t is true in no less a m a r e that all subjects may lose their cultnral significance entirely if the viewpoint is narrowed by selfish motives and the conduct is weighted down by mercenary objectives. If we were to inquire what subjects in the educational program of the last generation were most frequently regarded as cultnral in effect, one reply which might be expected would be "the classics." But there would undoubtedly be some differencesof opinion if our query sought the elements in these subjects which were definitely cultural and their etfect npon the minds of the stud&. Some educators might insist that the cul-
tural value of the classics centered around the mental development which their study involved. The ability to observe the different meanings conveyed by slight changes in the endings furnished no slight training in observation, in memory, and in interpretation. Others would have us believe that the chief cultural value of the classics hes in the increased ability to understand the meaning of English words. There is a certain fascination about the origin of our words and the tracing of finer shades of meaning in finding the cornhination of words wh~chis needed to express our exact meaning. These processes develop the mind, train the intellect, and undoubtedly add to refinements of conversation, of manner, and of taste. But they are completely concerned with the individual and lack entirely the humanistic features which seem to be taking such a commanding position on our educational battlefront. There is another reason why the study of the classics had such a long and useful career as a cultural force in education. It is that here was the key which unlocked a whole storehouse of literature, of history, and of life. He who read his Greek as a procession of cases, tenses, conjugations, and declensions was a slave to detail and missed a great opportunity to enter into the life, habits, customs, and traditions of a people whose influenceupon later centuries is still unmeasured. He who reads understandingly the story of Sophocles' Edipus Tyrannus will sense the deep religious nature Which shudders a t the boastful blasphemy of Jocasta. No one can fail to feel the deepest sympathy for the bewildered King himself, "the innocent victim of a ruthless destiny," in his attempt to avoid the fate of the oracle which decreed that he was destined to slay his own father and many his own mother. If the citizen of 1935 possesses the ability to live again through these thrilling scenes of that dramatic story of the struggle against an inexorably a u e l fate, then surely that same citizen is prepared to display an effective sympathy toward our own puzzling political problems. Such a sympathetic and practical understanding characterizes the cultured scholar, the product of an educational system Based upon an adequate evaluation of human interests. The classics have contributed much to the educational systems of Europe and America, and their influence is still widely evident. In our intensely practical age the domination of the classics has decreased and it may be possible that in a few years these studies will disappear entirely from the general cumcula, although in a few special cases they will undoubtedly continue. The pendulum has swung far over in the direction of subjects which may be characterized as having an immediate bread-and-butter value. The rapid growth of laboratory instruction in the sciences, both pure and applied, in engineering, in agriculture, in home economics, in medicine, and in a host of other professional courses has resulted, a t least in part, from the demand for the practical in education. The term "academic," long synonymous with intellect, culture, leisure, and influence, has become a term with which to characterize the visionary, impractical, and idealistic dreams of
those who bold themselves aloof from the surging throngs of humanity along the everyday walks of life. Even in political circles an effort is made to hold up for ridicule the "brain trust," because this group happens to include several college professors. These attempts to discount the intrinsic value of scholarly attainments probably result from extreme emphasis on the practical side of our educational system. The classics have made definite contributions to modem life but they are disappearing from our curricula. What are we offering in their places? It is to be feared that no particular subjects have inherited the commanding position occupied by Greek and Latin during the classic period of educational history. Perhaps it is well that we are allowed generous freedom in our diversification of interests. But it seems certain that an educational system which lacks entirely the cultural value of the classics falls short of that well-rounded training which has been the ambition of educators. It has already been suggested that no subject is of it$elf cultural, but that all subjects may become such if they are properly conducted. It is my firm conviction that chemistry offers a splendid opportunity for every teacher to bring into the classroom much of the elements of the culture of the classics. In addition chemistry is an intensely practical suhject, which presents useful information in a form which may be employed both in training the finer qualities of the mind and in supplying the qualifications for earning a livelihood. I believe that one of the first mental reactions which is experienced by the novice as he takes up the study of this complicated subject is one of bewilderment. The viewpoint is perhaps entirely new, the language is different, the new terms, supply confusion, and the chemical symbols are almost terrifying. It would be hard to convince anyone in such a state of mind that chemistry does not furnish a most excellent opportunity for mental drill and memory training. As he proceeds he learns that accurate discrimination is essential, as witness the importance of the e'ndings, -ite, -ate, -ide, and a host of others. As he progresses he learns that the distinction between mercurows chloride and mercuric chloride signifies the difference between a widely used and valuable medicine and one of our most common and virulent poisons; likewise that in the preparation of a physiological salt Solution the displacement of the decimal point may change a life-saving fluid into one which is sure to destroy life. His entire laboratory experience teaches an alert mental attitude, careful observations of the most minute details, and thoughtful, intelligent discrimination in the interpretation of his results. Certainly here is a suhject which demands of its students a careftdly trained memory, the ability to observe thoroughly and intelligently, the power to discriminate between vital facts and non-essentials, and above all, the skill to interpret the significance of phenomena and to apply new knowledge to useful ends. Thus far chemistry is certainly capable of adjusting itself to meet the most exacting requirements of our modern educational system.
But what can be said about the adaptability of chemistry to the humanistic side of our educational training? Can we use this intensely materialistic subject to implant a sympathetic understanding of human affairs and to make a definite contribution to the solution of our puzzling human problems? I t is necessary to concede that man's conquest of nature may be used for both human and inhuman ends. It is to be feared, perhaps, that all too frequently the latter uses are uppermost in our thinking about chemistry. If this name brings to our minds dire tales of poison gas, inhuman gas attacks, and a ruthless disregard for the safety of defenseless women and children, then it is high time that teachers of chemistry everywhere began to recognize a new obligation which demands that the cultural training of the many must accompany the professional preparation which we have been giving to the few who specialize. Chemistry, the science of changing forms of matter, can be related to the changes which characterize the political, social, and economic problems of the human race. Perhaps there is no more evident application of chemistry than that which applies to the age-old struggle against the ravages of disease. The progress made in this battle forms a thrilling story and the new victories which we hope the future will win should f i e the ambition of many a youth to great aspirations. If we could show that chemistry contributes its share. toward world peace and economic security, those dual conditions now so earnestly desired, then our science becomes a powerful factor in the lives of men. It must be admitted freely that these applications are not always easily made. That is because we are not accustomed to making the attempt. We have been training specialists, looking a t things from a professional angle, and thinking so long in terms of "science for science's sake" that we are bewildered by the thought that chemistry is after all intensely human and has no small influence on the happines~and the lives of a large number of o w fellows. But that state of bewilderment is no doubt our own fault and wetan correct it if we will. One illustration may serve to make my meaning more clear. There are probably few assignments in elementary chemistry which create more consternation among the beginners than the chapter on chlorine. If it is taught merely as one more chemical element which has a certain history, occurrence, preparation, properties, and uses, interest may well be expected to wane. But see how quickly the subject begins to be interesting if the students are told about the way in which cloth was bleached before chlorine became available in quantity and how the introduction of the Deacon process in England suddenly left large numbers of the bleacher's guild without employment. Then we might take time to draw a moral, and call attention to the fact that nearly every invention creates a hardship upon someone, because it interferes with his previous occupation. A new economic adjustment is necessary after each advancement of this kind and unemployment is not a
new factor in human life. Our present unemployment situation is due, in part, to the advent of labor-saving devices, and the thing for our generation to do is to adjust itself as best i t can to the changed order. Treated in this manner chlorine ceases to be merely an ill-smelling gas with an uninteresting history, an impossible method of preparation, and a next-to-useless existence, for it becomes a vital factor in human progress and even the intricacies of the Deacon process take on a new meaning in human interest. The recitation then ceases to be a drab recital of routine facts and becomes a symbol of today's most tremendous problems. Ch'emistry lends itself splendidly to a cultural education. It is teeming with life and life's problems. But, if chemistry is to take its place beside other practical subjects as a potential influence for a cultural training, we, its teachers, must be awake to the possibilities and to the needs of the situation. Our educational system will not be denied its cultural influences. If chemistry does not rise to the occasion ind do its part toward supplying training formerly supplied by the classics, then some other subject will meet the demand and we shall have missed a great opportunity. Educators tell us that the educational pendulum which has of late swung far out in the direction of the practical and of specialization has already begun to move back toward the cultural training. It seems quite possible that one of the major results of this economic depression through which we are now passing may be to shift our attention away from the accumulation of great wealth for the individual toward the universal brotherhood of man which makes certain the establishment of peace, se. curity, and happiness for the many. It must not be assumed from the references which have already been made t o specialization, that the author does not favor special training for advanced students in chemistry. Such training is~vitallyessential if the science is to endure and to. continue to be a productive factor in modern civilization. ' Chemistry is so extensive and so complex that there is no other way for i t to grow except through the aid of those who are willing to limit their study t o a definitely restricted area. But it is becoming increasingly important to recognize that the teaching of chemistry involves two distinct phases-(1) the training of-specialists, and (2) the making of a definite contribution to the cultural training of o w general student group. There has been unpardonable confusion of aims in these two phases of our work and their disentanglement is highly to be desired. Such a step would be to the everlasting benefit of both groups, and undoubtedly to the simplification of the process of teaching. The recognition of the cultural value of chemistry should make it possible for educated persons to acquire a sympathetic understanding of this fascinating science. Such a step would permit us a t the same time to protect our advanced studies from the stampede which seems to be headed in their direction. By adding strength to these features of our work we will be able to make a more rigid
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422 selection of those who wish to specialize. These two steps taken together will reinforce each other and.not only produce a very helpful broadening of the usefulness of chemistry but will also very definitely increase its efficiency and expand its applications. Students of the science of chemistry then readily divide themselves into two groups: (1) those who approach the study from the professional point of view, and (2) those who are interested in acquiring only a cultural contact with this fundamental science. If we ignore these differences we do harm to both; if we recognize the difference we can help both groups effectively. About three years ago the author became interested in knowing how many of the students in Chemistry I continued with the study of chemistry after completing this one course. He was amazed to find that more than 60 per cent. of such students took only a single semester's work. It is evident that these persons were not interested in chemistry as a profession or even in chemistry as a preparation for some other profession. They were interested in broadening their mental horizon and were content with obtaining a general notion of what chemistry is, what it is attempting to accomplish, and what it is able to add to civilization. Such students with such objectives in mind, should not be given a course whose entire organization and cond u d is professional in spirit and preparatory in outlook. In order to meet the needs of such students we have organized a survey course, which plans to follow a nonprofessional method of attack. It covers general chemistry, including the metals; it touches organic, physical, physiological, medical, and industrial chemistry. Its aim is to survey these fields without laying itself open
to the charge of giving a mere smattering of information or of appearing as a "snap" course. By looking to the general educational value of chemistry, it aims at supplying something of a cultural aspect to the scientific method of approach. I t includes some laboratory work, but does not aim to develop technical skill in manipulation. Its whole outlook is broadening, informational, cultura-in short, it is intensely non-professional and makes a determined effort to avoid the notion that it is a preparatory course for advanced courses in chemistry. I t attempts to be informational without being detailed, educational without being professional, broadening without being sketchy, cultural without being ornamental or leisurely, and scientific without being technical. It may well be said that it attempts to establish in the general educational field a broad and wholesome appreciation of chemistry. Such a plan not only meets the needs of a considerable number of students, but also permits the strengthening of our professional courses. Perhaps the latter result may, after all, be the more important. Here is a great opportunity to teach a great science to a considerable number of students who are preparing themselves to live intelligently in a scientific age but who have no desire to become scientists. Chemistry has excellent possibilities as a cultural subject if we are willmg to present its intensely human aspects. I firmly believe that such a plan will contribute definitely to the upbuilding of chemistry as a technical science, because it will supply better-trained chemists and will at the same time produce an intelligent sympathy on the part of a great number of educated citizens. Surely this is a challenge which is worthy of our most serious consideration and of our best efforts.
