The Intellectual Basis of Specialization - American Chemical Society

1 The Intellectual Basis of Specialization Geochemistry in America, 1890-1915

Downloaded by 80.82.77.83 on May 9, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: August 23, 1984 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1984-0228.ch001

JOHN W. SERVOS Princeton University, Program in History of Science, Princeton, NJ 08544

Geochemistry was one of several new hybrid specialties to flourish in the United States in the twentieth century. It had its origins when geologists began to apply the tools of physical chemistry to the problems of petro genesis and metamorphism. This paper treats the reasons why America proved a congenial site for the development of this work. Espe cially important was the presence in the United States of vigorous communities of petrographers and physical chemists who perceived a fit between the problems of one field and the techniques of the other and who were able to mold institutions within which the specialty might grow. The first of these institutions were established within the U.S. Geological Survey and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Only well after 1900, when geochemists discovered unanticipated industrial applications of their knowledge, did the field find a secure place in American universities. The y e a r s a r o u n d t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y a r e r e p l e t e w i t h e x a m p l e s o f new s c i e n t i f i c s p e c i a l t i e s e m e r g i n g f r o m s i n g l e p a r e n t f i e l d s o r , more o f t e n , f r o m t h e j u n c t i o n o f two o r more e s t a b l i s h e d s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s . A l i s t o f t h e s e new s p e c i a l t i e s m i g h t i n c l u d e p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , a s t r o p h y s i c s , b i o c h e m i s t r y , and g e n e t i c s ; and t h e r o s t e r c o u l d be e a s i l y e x t e n d e d . A l t h o u g h most h a d t h e i r o r i g i n s i n E u r o p e , they found e s p e c i a l l y c o n g e n i a l c l i m a t e s f o r e x p a n s i o n i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n d e e d , i t was i n t h e s e new f i e l d s r a t h e r than i n o l d e r s p e c i a l t i e s , such as o r g a n i c chemistry, t h a t A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s f i r s t e x c e l l e d . The s t a n d i n g i n t h e i r s p e c i a l t i e s o f a G. N. L e w i s o r Thomas Hunt Morgan well i l l u s t r a t e s this point. They w e r e n o t j u s t i n f l u e n t i a l

0097-6156/83/0228-0001 $06.00/0 © 1983 American Chemical Society

Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

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t e a c h e r s o r e n t r e p r e n e u r s , t h e y w e r e a l s o s c i e n t i s t s who d e v e l o p e d new t e c h n i q u e s , i d e a s , and l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h w h i c h shaped t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e s i n i m p o r t a n t ways. An A m e r i c a n p r o p e n s i t y f o r a c h i e v e m e n t i n new, i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d s may be v i e w e d as p a r t o f t h e l a r g e r p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t was s u c h a p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e o f A m e r i can i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e i n the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S p e c i a l i z a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t a phenomenon t h a t has p a s s e d w i t h o u t commentary. I n d e e d , much o f what has b e e n w r i t t e n d u r i n g the past ten years about the h i s t o r y of s c i e n c e i n A m e r i c a d e a l s w i t h i t . Some h i s t o r i a n s h a v e c h a r t e d t h e h i s t o r i e s of i n d i v i d u a l d i s c i p l i n e s ; o t h e r s have t r e a t e d the s i t e s of s p e c i a l i z e d i n q u i r y or the development of markets f o r s p e c i a l i s t s s e r v i c e s ; s t i l l o t h e r s have examined the q u e s t i o n o f how s p e c i a l i z a t i o n c o u l d h a v e p r o c e e d e d so r a p i d l y i n a s o c i e t y s u p p o s e d l y wed t o e g a l i t a r i a n and d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s (1-5). A tendency to i d e n t i f y the American u n i v e r s i t y as t h e c r u c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h i s p r o c e s s i s a common denominator i n t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . The s i z e , d i v e r s i t y , and f l e x i b i l i t y o f A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , we a r e t o l d , made r a p i d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n p o s s i b l e — indeed, f o s t e r e d it. A l t h o u g h i n d u s t r i e s and government e x e r t e d a demand f o r men w i t h e s o t e r i c f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e , i t was t h e u n i v e r s i t y t h a t spawned and n u r t u r e d them. The e l e c t i v e s y s t e m , t h e graduate s c h o o l , the academic department a l l c o n t r i b u t e d to m a k i n g t h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t y , i n t h e words o f J o h n Higham, the "matrix of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n " (6-9). I do n o t w i s h t o c h a l l e n g e t h e i d e a t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t y o f t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y was a f l e x i b l e i n s t i t u t i o n . Nor do I w i s h t o r e j e c t t h e c l a i m t h a t i t s e r v e d as t h e m a j o r s i t e of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , r e c o g n i t i o n of the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y as a l o c u s o f t h i s phenomenon s h o u l d n o t c a u s e us t o n e g l e c t o t h e r k i n d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n s i n w h i c h new s p e c i a l t i e s c o a l e s c e d . Nor s h o u l d t h e c u r r e n t e m p h a s i s upon i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s and m a r k e t s f o r s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e b l i n d us t o t h e f a c t t h a t i d e a s t o o p l a y e d a r o l e — t h a t s c i e n t i s t s w i t h i d e a s c o u l d and d i d d e v e l o p new s p e c i a l t i e s d e s p i t e the absence of i n s t i t u t i o n s or s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c n e e d s w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r d i s c i p l i n a r y aims. The d e v e l o p m e n t o f g e o c h e m i s t r y i n A m e r i c a i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s e p o i n t s . I t s h i s t o r y b e a r s some s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e h i s t o r i e s o f o t h e r h y b r i d s p e c i a l t i e s t h a t emerged a r o u n d t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , b u t i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t ways i t c o n s t i tutes an e x c e p t i o n t o t h e n o r m a l p a t t e r n o f d e v e l o p m e n t . It d i d not t a k e shape i n the u n i v e r s i t y . Rather i t found i t s f i r s t e x p r e s s i o n i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n the laboratories o f t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y and t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington. Only very g r a d u a l l y d i d i t f i n d a p l a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m . Nor d i d i t grow i n r e s p o n s e t o


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m a r k e t demands. R a t h e r i t a r o s e t h r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s o f a g r o u p o f c h e m i s t s and g e o l o g i s t s t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e of g r e a t i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t b u t o f no i m m e d i a t e e c o n o m i c or s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Only g r a d u a l l y d i d e x p e r t s i n the new f i e l d d e v e l o p o r d i s c o v e r a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e i r s p e c i a l k n o w l e d g e and t e c h n i q u e s . D e s p i t e t h e i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f t h e s u b j e c t and t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s toward i t , American s c i e n t i s t s made f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o g e o c h e m i s t r y i n t h e e a r l y twentieth century. T h i s p a p e r s e e k s t o d e t e r m i n e why. The answer, I m a i n t a i n , i s not to be found i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements o r i n market f o r c e s , but r a t h e r i n the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s represented i n the United S t a t e s , i n t h e openness o f t h e A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i f i c community t o c r o s s - d i s c i p l i n a r y i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c h a n g e , and i n t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of American s c i e n t i s t s t o undertake experiments in multi-disciplinary collaboration. Before proceeding, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o d i s c u s s the h i s t o r y o f t h e t e r m ' g e o c h e m i s t r y , f o r i t s m e a n i n g has changed o v e r time. I t , o r i t s German e q u i v a l e n t , a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n c o i n e d i n 1838 b y t h e German n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r , C. F. S c h o n b e i n , t o d e s c r i b e t h e s t u d y o f t h e c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s . During the subsequent f o r t y y e a r s the word appeared s p o r a d i c a l l y i n the g e o l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . O f t e n used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h the t e r m c h e m i c a l g e o l o g y , i t was g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d t o a m i s c e l l a n y o f t o p i c s i n t h e a r e a s o f r o c k and m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s (10, 11, 12). I f Schonbein or h i s s u c c e s s o r s harbored ambitions f o r t h i s f i e l d , they were d i s a p p o i n t e d , f o r the y e a r s around midc e n t u r y were a low p o i n t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s between geology and c h e m i s t r y . The i n t e r e s t i n t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of i g n e o u s r o c k s t h a t had b e e n s t i r r e d b y t h e w o r k o f W e r n e r , P l a y f a i r , and H a l l had q u i e t e d , and g e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y w e r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h maps, t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o l u m n , and t h e h i s t o r y o f l a n d forms. Sedimentary, r a t h e r than igneous, r o c k s were a t the f o c u s o f t h e i r i n q u i r y ; p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e seemed more v a l u a b l e t h a n c h e m i c a l d a t a . Although i t was o c c a s i o n a l l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of igneous r o c k s might shed l i g h t on h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f e r u p t i v e d e p o s i t s r e s i s t e d any s i m p l e analysis. C h e m i s t r y was a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n e c o n o m i c g e o l o g y , and, where m i n i n g was i m p o r t a n t , t h e g e o l o g i c a l c h e m i s t had ample w o r k . But c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s was o f t e n q u i t e s e p a r a b l e f r o m g e o l o g i c a l f i e l d w o r k . G e o l o g i s t s might c o l l e c t r o c k specimens, note t h e i r abundance, l o c a t i o n , and f i e l d r e l a t i o n s , b u t o f t e n s e n t t h e i r s a m p l e s to t r a i n e d c h e m i s t s f o r s t u d y . In England, students could o b t a i n degrees i n geology w i t h o u t ever having studied c h e m i s t r y , and a l t h o u g h t h e r e were c l o s e r l i n k s b e t w e e n 1

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c h e m i s t r y and g e o l o g y i n Germany a n d S c a n d i n a v i a , t h e c h e m i c a l l i t e r a c y o f g e o l o g i s t s was u s u a l l y n o t v e r y h i g h ( 1 2 , 1 3 ) . The r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y and p e t r o g r a p h y , t h e s c i e n c e o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o c k s , was somewhat c l o s e r s i n c e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n was t h o u g h t b y some p e t r o g r a p h e r s t o o f f e r a basis for rational classification. But e a r l y e f f o r t s t o c a t e g o r i z e r o c k s by t h e i r c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n were f r u s t r a t e d as i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o f i n d s i m p l e chemical formulas f o r these bodies. Rocks o f d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n f e l l i n t o t h e same c h e m i c a l c a t e g o r i e s , and r o c k s t h a t w e r e c h e m i c a l l y a l i k e w e r e sometimes q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t u r e , t e x t u r e , and f i e l d r e l a t i o n s . Moreover, t h e s u c c e s s o f H. C l i f t o n Sorby's technique f o r t h e m i c r o s c o p i c study o f t h i n s e c t i o n s o f r o c k s accentuated t h e tendency t o i d e n t i f y r o c k s on t h e b a s i s o f e x t e r n a l r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r n a l p r o p e r t i e s (14, 1 5 ) . Toward t h e end o f t h e c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , c h e m i s t r y , w h i c h had b e e n t h e a s s a y e r ' s a r t and t h e g e o l o g i s t ' s somewhat n e g l e c t e d h a n d m a i d e n , assumed a new i m p o r t a n c e f o r g e o l o g i s t s and p e t r o g r a p h e r s . I t c e a s e d t o be s i m p l y a r e s e r v o i r o f t e c h n i q u e s t h e g e o l o g i s t c a l l e d upon when i n n e e d o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r o c k a n d m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d became i n s t e a d t h e b a s i s f o r answering fundamental questions p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e o r i g i n s o f g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e reasons f o r g e o l o g i c a l c h a n g e , q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e c a u s e s a n d mechanisms o f i g n e o u s p e t r o g e n e s i s , m e t a m o r p h i s m , and s e d i m e n t a t i o n . Chemistry a c q u i r e d a new s t a t u r e n o t b e c a u s e g e o l o g i s t s b e g a n t o a s k new q u e s t i o n s ; e a c h o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s h a d a h o a r y h i s t o r y . R a t h e r i t was b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t l y e n l a r g e d a b i l i t y o f c h e m i s t s to h a n d l e complex g e o l o g i c a l d a t a . I n p a r t i c u l a r , the ideas and t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e new d i s c i p l i n e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y opened t h e way t o t h e t r e a t m e n t o f i n t r i c a t e d y n a m i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t were beyond t h e c a p a c i t y o f i n o r g a n i c o r a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t s o f a n e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n . The j u n c t i o n o f g e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s and t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d i d e a s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y was d e s c r i b e d b y a v a r i e t y o f names a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y : physico-chemical geology, chemical p e t r o l o g y , geochemistry, geophysics. What i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e 1890s a l o o s e n e t w o r k o f c h e m i s t s and g e o l o g i s t s took form around a s e t o f o l d p r o b l e m s and a s e t o f new o r i m p r o v e d t o o l s . Out of t h i s n e t w o r k t h e r e a r o s e t h e f i r s t r e c o g n i z a b l y modern w o r k s on g e o c h e m i s t r y ( 1 1 , 1 6 - 1 9 ) . W i t h t h e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s i g h t , i t seems o b v i o u s t h a t g e o l o g y s h o u l d h a v e become a f i e l d o f a p p l i c a t i o n f o r p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . As e a r l y a s 1851, R o b e r t Bunsen h a d o b s e r v e d t h a t magmas w e r e s o l u t i o n s and m i g h t be t r e a t e d by t h e same p r i n c i p l e s t h a t g o v e r n e d t h e b e h a v i o r o f aqueous s o l u t i o n s . Minerals did not s i m p l y c r y s t a l l i z e o u t o f magmas i n t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r o f t h e i r f u s i b i l i t i e s , b u t m i g h t show t h e same c o m p l e x s o l u b i l i t y p a t t e r n s as were e x h i b i t e d by m i x t u r e s o f s a l t s i n w a t e r (20, 2 1 ) .



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I n 1857, t h e F r e n c h p e t r o g r a p h e r , J . D u r o c h e r , drew a n o t h e r a n a l o g y when h e n o t e d s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n magmas and a l l o y s (22). I f one c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n i n g t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f m e t a l l i c melts, which could y i e l d a l l o y s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s depending on the r a t e and c o n d i t i o n s o f c o o l i n g , m i g h t n o t t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e extended t o rock melts? B o t h Bunsen and D u r o c h e r w e r e s e e k i n g t o comprehend t h e i n a c c e s s i b l e and c o m p l e x i n t e r m s o f t h e f a m i l i a r and s i m p l e r . T h e i r s u g g e s t i o n s , h o w e v e r , b o r e no d i r e c t f r u i t , f o r a l t h o u g h aqueous s o l u t i o n s and a l l o y s m i g h t be s i m p l e r t h a n magmas, t h e y were b u t l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d b y chemists. The r e m a r k a b l e s e r i e s o f c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e 1880s t h a t w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g e n e s i s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y s u p p l i e d a b a s i s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t Bunsen and D u r o c h e r l a c k e d ( 2 3 ) . V a n ' t H o f f ' s l a w o f o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e , A r r h e n i u s ' s t h e o r y o f e l e c t r o l y t i c d i s s o c i a t i o n , and t h e s u b s e q u e n t w o r k o f N e r n s t , O s t w a l d , and t h e i r s t u d e n t s i l l u m i n a t e d i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e b e h a v i o r and p r o p e r t i e s o f solutions. G i b b s ' s p h a s e r u l e , f i r s t a p p r e c i a t e d and u s e d by Roozeboom, O s t w a l d , L e C h a t e l i e r , and v a n ' t H o f f i n t h e l a t e 1880s, f u r n i s h e d s c i e n t i s t s w i t h a v a l u a b l e guide t o the study o f heterogeneous e q u i l i b r i a . A l t h o u g h the laws o f i d e a l s o l u t i o n w e r e v a l i d o n l y f o r e x t r e m e l y d i l u t e aqueous s o l u t i o n s — s l i g h t l y p o l l u t e d w a t e r , a s one c h e m i s t p h r a s e d i t — and a l t h o u g h t h e p h a s e r u l e was a p p l i e d a t f i r s t o n l y t o v e r y s i m p l e s y s t e m s , p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y c o n f i d e n t l y a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s would serve as a b a s i s f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f new l i n k s b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y and o t h e r s c i e n c e s (24). P h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , they s u g g e s t e d , would be a donor s c i e n c e , c a p a b l e o f s t i m u l a t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t i n , and a n s w e r i n g the needs o f , n e i g h b o r i n g d i s c i p l i n e s . I t was s u c h , t h e y a r g u e d , b e c a u s e s o l u t i o n s w e r e t h e s i t e s o f most c h e m i c a l c h a n g e s . The t e s t s o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e wet way, t h e phenomena o f l i f e t o o k p l a c e i n s o l u t i o n , s o l u t i o n s were t h e medium o f many i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s , and l a s t but not l e a s t , s o l u t i o n s were p o w e r f u l agents o f g e o l o g i c a l change. I n s o f a r a s t h e f o u n d e r s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y had r e v o l u t i o n i z e d the c h e m i s t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o l u t i o n s , t h e y had a l s o t r a n s f o r m e d t h e b a s i s f o r t h e g e o l o g i s t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c h e m i s t r y o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n and a l t e r a t i o n ( 2 5 , 26, 2 7 ) . 1

1

P h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s w e r e t h e m s e l v e s among t h e f i r s t t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e g e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r i d e a s and t o a p p l y t h e i r methods t o g e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . Both van't Hoff and A r r h e n i u s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t u r n e d t o w a r d g e o l o g i c a l i s s u e s i n t h e 1890s (25^, 2 8 ) . T h a t p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s s h o u l d h a v e e x p r e s s e d a l i v e l y i n t e r e s t i n g e o l o g i c a l phenomena i s n o t surprising. They w e r e a n x i o u s t o d e v e l o p s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n s



6

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b o t h as a means o f l e g i t i m a t i n g t h e i r i d e a s and o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g the r a t h e r f r a g i l e i n s t i t u t i o n a l supports of t h e i r s p e c i a l t y . But a t r a n s m i s s i o n o f i d e a s depended as much upon t h e r e c e p t i v i t y o f g e o l o g i s t s as on t h e a s s e r t i v e n e s s o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s , and g e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y w e r e i l l - p r e p a r e d t o f o l l o w , n e v e r m i n d make u s e o f , r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c h e m i s t r y . Moreover, t h e r e was a g r e a t d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y and t h e n e e d s o f g e o l o g i s t s . Magmas, f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e f a r more c o m p l e x t h a n d i l u t e aqueous s o l u t i o n s o r a l l o y s , and t h e y w e r e i n a c c e s s i b l e t o d i r e c t s t u d y . Whereas the chemist or m e t a l l u r g i s t c o u l d check h i s c o n c l u s i o n s a g a i n s t the behavior of s o l u t i o n s or a l l o y s i n the l a b o r a t o r y , the g e o l o g i s t d i d not possess f a c i l i t i e s i n which the n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be d u p l i c a t e d . H i s g i v e n s w e r e t h e r o c k s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t s o f magmatic cooling. T h e i r g e n e s i s was open t o many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The t r a n s m i s s i o n o f i d e a s and methods f r o m p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y t o g e o l o g y was t h e r e f o r e a s l o w and h a l t i n g p r o c e s s , and t h e p a t h and p a c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n v a r i e d a g r e a t d e a l from country t o c o u n t r y . The g e o l o g i s t s o f F r a n c e and England were r a t h e r slow t o adopt a p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l approach. I n s t e a d , t h e f i r s t g e o l o g i s t s t o make u s e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y w e r e l o c a t e d i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n t h e o r b i t o f German s c i e n c e : Norway ( J . H. L. V o g t ) , R u s s i a (A. L a g o r i o , F. Y. L o e w i n s o n L e s s i n g ) , A u s t r i a (C. A. S. D o e l t e r ) , and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( J . P. I d d i n g s , C. R. Van H i s e , A. L. Day, N. L. Bowen) ( 2 9 ) . Three f a c t o r s appear to have been c r u c i a l i n l e a d i n g t o t h i s p a t t e r n : t h e p r e s e n c e o f a v i g o r o u s group o f p e t r o g r a p h e r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and g e n e s i s o f i g n e o u s r o c k s ; t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a community o f c h e m i s t s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the r e c e n t developments i n s o l u t i o n theory and c h e m i c a l t h e r m o d y n a m i c s ; and t h e e x i s t e n c e o r c r e a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h g e o l o g i s t s and c h e m i s t s m i g h t m i x and c o l l a b o r a t e . Where t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e p r e s e n t , geochemical research f l o u r i s h e d at the t u r n of the century; w h e r e one o r a n o t h e r o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s was a b s e n t , a geoc h e m i c a l t r a d i t i o n was s l o w t o d e v e l o p . The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e A m e r i c a n c a s e . By t h e m i d - 1 8 9 0 s , a l a r g e and s t i l l g r o w i n g c a d r e o f p e t r o g r a p h e r s was a c t i v e i n A m e r i c a . Some had l e a r n e d t h e i r s c i e n c e a t home i n t h e f i e l d , b u t a t t h e c o r e o f t h i s g r o u p were s c i e n t i s t s who had a c q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , t e x t u r e , and c o m p o s i t i o n o f r o c k s i n Germany. B e g i n n i n g i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , a s t r e a m o f A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s had gone t o H e i d e l b e r g , L e i p z i g , and o t h e r German u n i v e r s i t i e s t o s t u d y u n d e r F e r d i n a n d Z i r k e l , H a r r y R o s e n b u s c h , and o t h e r German m a s t e r s o f pétrographie t e c h n i q u e s . A r o s t e r o f t h e more n o t a b l e of these Americans would i n c l u d e Joseph Paxton Iddings, C h a r l e s Whitman C r o s s , H e n r y S. W a s h i n g t o n , L o u i s V. P i r s s o n , G. H. W i l l i a m s , J . E. W o l f f , F. Ε. W r i g h t , and R. A. D a l y . Although



1.

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most went i n o r d e r t o l e a r n t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and t h i n s e c t i o n a n a l y s i s , many t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i r s t a y i n Germany t o a t t e n d l e c t u r e s o n c h e m i s t r y a s w e l l ( 3 0 - 3 3 ) . A f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s many b e g a n t h e i r c a r e e r s a t t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . There, t h e i r primary t a s k was t o i d e n t i f y and map d i s t r i c t s w i t h e c o n o m i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g m i n e r a l s , b u t they a l s o had t h e freedom t o s t u d y b r o a d e r q u e s t i o n s . The r o c k s o f t h e e r u p t i v e d i s t r i c t s o f the American west, f o r i n s t a n c e , were a n e x c e l l e n t s i t e f o r s t u d y o f t h e o r i g i n s and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f i g n e o u s r o c k s , and t h e a n c i e n t r o c k s o f t h e L a k e S u p e r i o r r e g i o n o f f e r e d t e m p t i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r w o r k o n p r o c e s s e s o f metamorphism and o r e f o r m a t i o n . By t h e 1890s s e v e r a l A m e r i c a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s had begun t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and t o make s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n t h e h i s t o r y and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o c k s . F o r e i g n s t u d y among A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s o f p e t r o g r a p h y r e a c h e d a peak i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 9 0 s , a n d i t was a t t h i s t i m e t h a t the f i r s t Americans began t o r e t u r n from Europe w i t h advanced t r a i n i n g i n another s p e c i a l t y — p h y s i c a l chemistry. Between 1889 and 1 9 0 5 , o v e r f o r t y A m e r i c a n s w o r k e d i n W i l h e l m O s t w a l d ' s l a b o r a t o r y a t L e i p z i g ; t h e y formed t h e n u c l e u s o f a v i g o r o u s community o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Like their European t e a c h e r s , t h e s e p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s were a n x i o u s t o w i n an a u d i e n c e f o r t h e i r i d e a s and t o d e v e l o p i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r their specialty. D u r i n g t h e 1890s, they t r a n s l a t e d European t e x t s , e s t a b l i s h e d g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s , and l a u n c h e d a j o u r n a l devoted t o t h e i r s u b j e c t . They a l s o s o u g h t t o a d a p t t h e i r k n o w l e d g e t o t h e needs o f o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s — a t f i r s t b y w r i t i n g t e x t s on q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s and g e n e r a l c h e m i s t r y from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e i o n i c t h e o r y , and l a t e r b y a p p l y i n g s o l u t i o n t h e o r y and c h e m i c a l t h e r m o d y n a m i c s t o p r o b l e m s i n a g r i c u l t u r e , e n g i n e e r i n g , and m e d i c i n e . During the n i n e t i e s , they succeeded i n b r i n g i n g t h e i r s u b j e c t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e b r o a d e r s c i e n t i f i c community and i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s e t t i n g s i n which t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s might prosper ( 2 7 ) . S h o r t l y a f t e r 1890, l i a s o n s b e g a n t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e s e two s p e c i a l t i e s . The f i r s t A m e r i c a n c o n t a c t s w e r e n o t made i n e m u l a t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t s a b r o a d ; r a t h e r t h e y w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f , and r o u g h l y s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h , s i m i l a r c o n t a c t s t h e n b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n p e t r o g r a p h e r s and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s i n Norway, A u s t r i a , and R u s s i a . I t was n o t t h e u n i v e r s i t y that served as the p r i n c i p a l context o f i n t e l l e c t u a l commerce, b u t r a t h e r t h e o f f i c e s a n d l a b o r a t o r i e s o f t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey. A n d i t was i n t h e S u r v e y and i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n b u i l t by s c i e n t i s t s from t h a t agency — t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y o f t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f W a s h i n g t o n — t h a t t h e new p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l geology f l o u r i s h e d . Two p e t r o g r a p h e r s , J o s e p h P a x t o n I d d i n g s (1857-1920) a n d C h a r l e s R. V a n H i s e (1857-1918) w e r e t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e



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i n t e l l e c t u a l b r o k e r s who e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e c o n t a c t s i n A m e r i c a . They w e r e n o t e x t r e m e l y o r i g i n a l s c i e n t i s t s n o r w e r e t h e y l a b o r a t o r y men w i t h t r a i n i n g i n p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . Rather t h e y w e r e s y n t h e s i z e r s who c a s t t h e i r n e t s w i d e and who came t o b e l i e v e , t h r o u g h w o r k i n f i e l d and l i b r a r y , t h a t p h y s i c a l chemists working i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h g e o l o g i s t s might develop a n s w e r s t o t h e p e r p l e x i n g p r o b l e m s o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n and metamorphism. I d d i n g s appears to have been the f i r s t American g e o l o g i s t to draw a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s o l u t i o n theory. He was one o f t h e many A m e r i c a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s who had s t u d i e d u n d e r R o s e n b u s c h and who had t h e n j o i n e d t h e young U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey. D u r i n g t h e 1 8 8 0 s , I d d i n g s s p e n t h i s summers i n the f i e l d , amidst the v o l c a n i c r o c k s of Y e l l o w s t o n e P a r k , and h i s w i n t e r s i n W a s h i n g t o n , w h e r e he s t r u c k up a f r i e n d s h i p w i t h F. W. C l a r k e , t h e c h i e f c h e m i s t o f t h e S u r v e y and a man w i t h w i d e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . Both of these e x p e r i e n c e s proved i m p o r t a n t f o r I d d i n g s (30, 34). H i s f i e l d w o r k gave I d d i n g s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h e r u p t i v e r o c k s t h a t e x h i b i t e d a f a i r l y smooth and c o n t i n u o u s g r a d a t i o n o f m i n e r a l and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ; t h e d e p o s i t s a p p e a r e d t o r e f l e c t t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l s e q u e n c e o f f o r m a t i o n . M i n e r a l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l a n a l y s e s of samples from these beds, t o g e t h e r w i t h r e p o r t s of s i m i l a r d e p o s i t s elsewhere, l e d Iddings t o suggest t h a t t h e i g n e o u s r o c k s o f any r e g i o n a r e so i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d by m i n e r a l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t t h e y must h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n a common s o u r c e — some s i n g l e magma t h a t c o u l d g i v e r i s e t o v a r i o u s k i n d s of igneous r o c k s through a process of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . S e v e r a l E u r o p e a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s had a l r e a d y n o t e d t e x t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f d i s c r e t e pétrographie p r o v i n c e s , and o t h e r s had s u g g e s t e d t h a t i g n e o u s r o c k s m i g h t be d e r i v e d f r o m a s i n g l e magma t h r o u g h differentiation. I d d i n g s s c o n t r i b u t i o n was t o s t r e s s t h e c h e m i c a l r e l a t e d n e s s of rocks i n p a r t i c u l a r p r o v i n c e s — their chemical consanguinity (16). I d d i n g s s w o r k l e d d i r e c t l y t o two f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s : What was t h e p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l s t a t e o f m o l t e n magmas? and by what p r o c e s s c o u l d a w i d e v a r i e t y o f d i s t i n c t b u t c h e m i c a l l y r e l a t e d r o c k s be d e r i v e d f r o m a s i n g l e , homogeneous s o u r c e ? It was h e r e t h a t p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y became i m p o r t a n t . In h i s f i r s t p a p e r on t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f i g n e o u s r o c k s , w r i t t e n i n 1889, I d d i n g s had b e e n u n a b l e t o go b e y o n d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s when i t came t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s . He t r e a t e d magmas as s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n s of s i l i c a t e molecules from which m i n e r a l s p e c i e s c r y s t a l l i z e d a s t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e d . As t o t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e compounds i n s o l u t i o n and t h e d e t a i l s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n magmas, h e c o n f e s s e d i g n o r a n c e ( 3 5 ) . I n h i s n e x t p a p e r on t h e s u b j e c t , w r i t t e n i n 1892, I d d i n g s a d o p t e d a f a r more c o n f i d e n t t o n e . Whereas he had e a r l i e r b e e n w i t h o u t s u g g e s t i o n s as t o how t o p r o c e e d , i n t h i s p a p e r he 1

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a d v a n c e d a new h y p o t h e s i s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f s u b s t a n c e s i n magmas and p o s i t e d a mechanism w h e r e b y c h e m i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n might occur. I n l a r g e p a r t t h i s new c o n f i d e n c e a p p e a r s t o h a v e been d e r i v e d f r o m h i s d i s c o v e r y o f t h e p a p e r s o f v a n t H o f f and A r r h e n i u s on s o l u t i o n t h e o r y . H i s a t t e n t i o n was drawn t o A r r h e n i u s ' s w o r k , he t e l l s h i s r e a d e r , through t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f o f h i s c o l l e a g u e a t t h e S u r v e y , F. W. C l a r k e ( 3 6 ) . I d d i n g s h a d a l r e a d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t i d e n t i c a l magmas c o u l d p r o d u c e v e r y d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l s d e p e n d i n g upon t h e c o n d i t i o n s of c o o l i n g . A n a l y s e s o f r o c k s drawn f r o m two l o c a t i o n s i n t h e Y e l l o w s t o n e r e g i o n had shown t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s e s a m p l e s w e r e c h e m i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l they d i f f e r e d markedly i n m i n e r a l composition. I d d i n g s had even t e n t a t i v e l y suggested t h a t m i n e r a l s might n o t r e t a i n t h e i r m o l e c u l a r i n t e g r i t y i n t h e molten s t a t e , b u t m i g h t decompose i n t o s i m p l e r u n i t s w h i c h c o u l d s h i f t a b o u t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f one a n o t h e r and e n t e r i n t o s e v e r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g d u r i n g c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n (37). A r r h e n i u s s theory o f e l e c t r o l y t i c d i s s o c i a t i o n provided Iddings w i t h a powerful support f o r t h i s i d e a i n t h a t i t i n d i c a t e d t h a t magmas m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s belonging t o a l a r g e c l a s s o f s o l u t i o n s i n which molecules o f s o l u t e d i s s o c i a t e d i n t o i o n s . Iddings concluded that the simpler u n i t s i n magmas were p r o b a b l y o x i d e s o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s (36). Although t h i s c o n c l u s i o n proved premature, I d d i n g s s .work was an i m p o r t a n t a d v a n c e b e c a u s e i t b o t h p u t new c o n t e n t i n t o B u n s e n s o l d s u g g e s t i o n t h a t magmas w e r e s o l u t i o n s and went some way t o w a r d e x p l a i n i n g how d i f f e r e n t r o c k s c o u l d a r i s e f r o m one magma. A s t o t h e mechanism o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , I d d i n g s once a g a i n drew upon t h e work o f a p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t , i n t h i s c a s e , v a n t Hoff. Van't H o f f s theory o f osmotic pressure p r o v i d e d a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r an e m p i r i c a l p r i n c i p l e d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e e a r l y 1880s b y t h e p h y s i c i s t , C. S o r e t : i n a s o l u t i o n i n which there i s a temperature g r a d i e n t , molecules o f t h e s o l u t e w i l l t e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n t h e c o o l e r p o r t i o n . T h i s mechanism o f m o l e c u l a r d i f f u s i o n , I d d i n g s s u g g e s t e d , might be s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n what h e t o o k t o be e v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n magmas p r i o r t o c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n ( 3 8 ) . I d d i n g s c o n c l u d e d h i s p a p e r w i t h a n admonishment: The c o m p l e x i t i e s o f a compound s o l u t i o n t h a t e x i s t s o n l y a t e x t r e m e l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s and e x p e r i e n c e s t h e p r e s s u r e s t o w h i c h r o c k magmas h a v e u n d o u b t e d l y been s u b j e c t e d may l o n g r e m a i n b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f direct investigation. S t i l l t h e steady advance o f experimental physics o f f e r s great p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n this direction. U n t i l the establishment o f d e f i n i t e k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f m o l t e n magmas we must p r o c e e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a n a l o g y b y a p p l y i n g t o them s u c h l a w s a s may b e f o u n d a p p l i c a b l e t o s o l u t i o n s t h a t e x i s t a t lower temperatures and pressures (39).


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One c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n o f I d d i n g s * s p a p e r was t h a t g e o l o g i s t s s h o u l d pay h e e d t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e b o r d e r l a n d b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y and p h y s i c s . They s h o u l d make use o f t h e t h e o r y o f s o l u t i o n , and t h e y s h o u l d s e e k t o f o s t e r r e s e a r c h t h a t w o u l d o b v i a t e t h e need t o r e a s o n a b o u t magmas by a n a l o g y — that i s , r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g the d i r e c t study of m o l t e n s i l i c a t e s . Not l o n g a f t e r t h i s p a p e r was w r i t t e n , I d d i n g s s c o l l e a g u e , C h a r l e s R. Van H i s e , came t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n s by a somewhat d i f f e r e n t route. A l t h o u g h Van H i s e was an e x a c t c o n t e m p o r a r y o f I d d i n g s , h i s e d u c a t i o n was, i n most r e s p e c t s , i n f e r i o r t o t h a t o f h i s colleague. Van H i s e d i d n o t s t u d y i n Germany; h i s f o r m a l t r a i n i n g was as a m e c h a n i c a l e n g i n e e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin. He l e a r n e d h i s g e o l o g y i n t h e f i e l d , f i r s t as an a s s i s t a n t i n t h e s t a t e s u r v e y o f W i s c o n s i n , w h e r e he became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e use o f t h e m i c r o s c o p e , and l a t e r as a g e o l o g i s t and d i v i s i o n c h i e f i n t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . A l t h o u g h Van H i s e t a u g h t a t h i s a l m a m a t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1880s and 1 8 9 0 s , and l a t e r became i t s p r e s i d e n t , h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l l i f e was o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e S u r v e y , where h i s p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was t o s t u d y t h e i r o n and c o p p e r d i s t r i c t s o f t h e L a k e S u p e r i o r r e g i o n (40, 41). A l e s s e r i n t e l l e c t might have been s a t i s f i e d to prepare u s e f u l but e s s e n t i a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e r e p o r t s on t h e t o p o g r a p h y and m i n e r a l s o f t h e a r e a , b u t Van H i s e had u n u s u a l d i s c i p l i n e and t e n a c i t y . H i s d e s c r i p t i v e work l e d h i m , d u r i n g the e a r l y 1890s, t o study the causes of o r e d e p o s i t i o n and t h e l a r g e r s u b j e c t o f metamorphism. F r u s t r a t e d by h i s i n a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n i n t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s , Van H i s e embarked on an a m b i t i o u s c a m p a i g n t o e d u c a t e h i m s e l f i n t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y . I n 1902, he w r o t e : d u r i n g the past f i v e y e a r s , i n order t o handle the p r o b l e m s o f g e o l o g y b e f o r e me, I h a v e s p e n t more t i m e i n t r y i n g t o remedy my d e f e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e o f p h y s i c s and c h e m i s t r y . . . t h a n I h a v e s p e n t upon c u r r e n t p a p e r s i n g e o l o g y ; and w i t h , I b e l i e v e , much more p r o f i t t o my w o r k ( 4 2 ) . Van H i s e d i d n o t engage i n t h i s s t u d y a l o n e . In the m i d - n i n e t i e s , u s i n g S u r v e y f u n d s , he h i r e d a young p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t , A. T. L i n c o l n , t o a s s i s t him w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n s and, i t a p p e a r s , t o t u t o r h i m i n t h e new l i t e r a t u r e (44, 4 5 ) . The f r u i t s o f t h e s e l a b o r s a p p e a r e d i n a s e r i e s o f p a p e r s d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1890s and i n h i s m a s s i v e T r e a t i s e on M e t a m o r p h i s m o f 1904, an e n c y c l o p e d i c w o r k t h a t some o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s t o o k t o be t h e l a s t w o r d on t h e s u b j e c t (45, 46).


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Van H i s e s t r e a t m e n t o f metamorphism a r o s e f r o m t h e f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t young r o c k s a r e o f t e n marked by numerous f i s s u r e s and j o i n t s w h e r e a s o l d e r r o c k s show many s i g n s o f f o l d i n g and f l e x u r e b u t few o f f r a c t u r e . He a s c r i b e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h d e f o r m a t i o n o c c u r r e d . Young r o c l s w e r e d e f o r m e d n e a r t h e s u r f a c e i n what Van H i s e c a l l e d a zone o f



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fracture. Here s t r e s s might r e s u l t i n r u p t u r e , but incumbent p r e s s u r e was i n s u f f i c i e n t t o c a u s e f i s s u r e s , o n c e o p e n e d , t o b e closed. A n c i e n t r o c k s were deformed beneath t h i s zone, i n a s e c o n d r e g i o n w h i c h Van H i s e c a l l e d t h e z o n e o f f l o w . Here p r e s s u r e was g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s t r e n g t h o f any r o c k , and h e n c e f i s s u r e s were i m p o s s i b l e . D e f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s lower r e g i o n r e s u l t e d from the p l a s t i c f l o w of r o c k s . A l t h o u g h Van H i s e a t t r i b u t e d t h e g r o s s d e f o r m a t i o n o f r o c k s t o p h y s i c a l c a u s e s , h e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i r a l t e r a t i o n was a chemical, o r p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l , problem. Thus, he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a d i f f e r e n t set o f chemical r e a c t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d the a l t e r a t i o n o f r o c k s i n each zone. I n t h e zone o f f r a c t u r e , r e a c t i o n s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e e x p a n s i o n o f v o l u m e and t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f heat: o x i d a t i o n , c a r b o n a t i o n , and h y d r a t i o n . I n the lower zone, these r e a c t i o n s were r e v e r s e d as p r e s s u r e r a t h e r t h a n t e m p e r a t u r e became t h e f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g c h e m i c a l c h a n g e . In both zones, the a l t e r a t i o n of r o c k s took p l a c e c h i e f l y through t h e a g e n c y o f w a t e r and t h e m i n e r a l i z e r s t h a t w a t e r c a r r i e d i n solution. I n t h e zone o f f r a c t u r e , m e t e o r i c w a t e r s c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h f i s s u r e s , d i s s o l v i n g and d e p o s i t i n g m e t a l s and o t h e r m i n e r a l s as a r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n i n s o l u b i l i t y a r i s i n g from changes i n t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e . I n the zone o f r o c k f l o w , minute q u a n t i t i e s o f trapped water acted to m a i n t a i n rocks i n a p l a s t i c s t a t e t h r o u g h t h e c o n t i n u o u s s o l u t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n o f r o c k m a t e r i a l ( 4 5 , _47, 48, 4 9 ) . f

The names o f v a n t H o f f , A r r h e n i u s , O s t w a l d , and N e r n s t d o t t h e pages o f Van H i s e s w o r k and w i t h good r e a s o n . His unders t a n d i n g o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e o n c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s and o f t h e r o l e s o f w a t e r and i o n i c e q u i l i b r i a i n m e t a m o r p h i c p r o c e s s e s was d e r i v e d l a r g e l y f r o m h i s r e a d i n g o f t h e work of these p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s . "The h a n d l i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f r o c k a l t e r a t i o n w i t h f a i r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , " he l a t e r w r o t e , "was p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e r i s e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . Had t h i s s c i e n c e n o t b e e n d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e p a s t s c o r e o f y e a r s , i t w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e t o h a v e gone f a r upon t h e p r o b l e m . . . . " ( 5 0 ) . Van H i s e t h o u g h t t h a t h e had s k e t c h e d o u t t h e m a j o r f e a t u r e s o f a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f metamorphism. But h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the d e t a i l s of metamorphic p r o c e s s e s were l a r g e l y unresolved. A b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e phenomena, h e s u g g e s t e d on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n , w o u l d r e q u i r e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y b y s c i e n t i s t s w i t h a s u r e r k n o w l e d g e o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y t h a n he had b e e n a b l e t o a c q u i r e 051, 5 2 ) . 1

D e s p i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e , V a n H i s e and I d d i n g s b o t h came t o t h e v i e w t h a t a c l o s e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n c h e m i s t s and g e o l o g i s t s w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y , and b o t h p e r c e i v e d advantages i n c o n d u c t i n g such c o l l a b o r a t i v e work i n t h e laboratory. But f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e s c o n f r o n t e d s u c h a n u n d e r taking. F a c i l i t i e s d i d not e x i s t i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s o r abroad f o r a p p r o x i m a t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h r o c k s w e r e f o r m e d ( 5 3 , 5 4 ) . A d v a n c e s i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f producing


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and m e a s u r i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h c o n d i t i o n s m i g h t be r e a l i z e d , b u t a l a b o r a t o r y e q u i p p e d t o s t u d y m o l t e n s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n s w o u l d be an e x p e n s i v e a f f a i r , r e q u i r i n g a i r and w a t e r c o m p r e s s o r s , h i g h p r e s s u r e bombs, gas and r e s i s t a n c e f u r n a c e s , c o s t l y e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t , and p r o d i g i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of p l a t i n u m f o r r e a c t i o n v e s s e l s . A f a i r l y l a r g e s t a f f w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s p e c i a l s k i l l s w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n and s u p e r v i s e d e l i c a t e experiments t h a t might run f o r hours or days. And t h e e n t i r e e n t e r p r i s e w o u l d be d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a s s e m b l i n g d a t a w i t h no d e m o n s t r a b l e e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t . A l t h o u g h Van H i s e was a p r o f e s s o r a t W i s c o n s i n and I d d i n g s had j o i n e d t h e s t a f f a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o i n 1892, t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t e i t h e r approached u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s w i t h such a p r o j e c t . Rather t h e y c h o s e t o w o r k t h r o u g h t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . The o p p o r t u n i t y came i n 1900, when t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e Survey, C. D. W a l c o t t , a p p o i n t e d Van H i s e c h a i r m a n o f a c o m m i t t e e t o s t u d y r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e g e o l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l d i v i s i o n s o f t h e a g e n c y ( 5 5 ) . The S u r v e y had s p o n s o r e d a l i m i t e d p r o g r a m o f g e o p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e 1880s and e a r l y 1 8 9 0 s , b u t d u r i n g t h e b u d g e t c r i s i s o f 1892, t h i s l a b o r a t o r y had b e e n a b o l i s h e d and t h e S u r v e y had c o n f i n e d i t s e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s t o r o u t i n e c h e m i c a l a n a l y s e s ( 5 6 ) . Now, h o w e v e r , t h e c h e m i s t s i n t h e S u r v e y , t o g e t h e r w i t h some o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y minded g e o l o g i s t s s u c h as Van H i s e , had grown r e s t i v e w i t h t h i s r o l e . The r e p o r t o f Van H i s e s c o m m i t t e e , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , recommended t h a t c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e S u r v e y be g r e a t l y expanded and t h a t t i m e and e q u i p m e n t be made a v a i l a b l e f o r r e s e a r c h on p r o b l e m s s u c h as had c a u g h t t h e a t t e n t i o n o f Van H i s e and I d d i n g s ( 5 7 ) . 1

L a t e r t h a t y e a r , a l a b o r a t o r y o f c h e m i s t r y and p h y s i c s was o r g a n i z e d w i t h i n t h e S u r v e y u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f G e o r g e F. B e c k e r , a s c i e n t i s t w i t h b o t h l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e (58, 5 9 ) . I t became t h e k e r n e l f r o m w h i c h a g e o c h e m i c a l t r a d i t i o n grew i n A m e r i c a . B e c k e r drew t o g e t h e r an i m p r e s s i v e s t a f f whose members had b a c k g r o u n d s i n s e v e r a l d i s c i p l i n e s : the a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t s , F. W. C l a r k e and W. F. H i l l e b r a n d ; A r t h u r L o u i s Day, a Y a l e t r a i n e d p h y s i c i s t who had w o r k e d on h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t h e r m o m e t r y a t t h e P h y s i k a l i s c h - t e c h n i s c h e R e i c h s a n s t a l t ; Ε. T. A l l e n , a young c h e m i s t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n t h e new p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y ; F. E. W r i g h t , a p e t r o g r a p h e r f r e s h f r o m R o s e n b u s c h ' s i n s t i t u t e ; J . K. C l e m e n t , a p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t t r a i n e d by N e r n s t a t G o t t i n g e n ; and a n o t h e r p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t , E. S. Shepherd, who had w o r k e d a t C o r n e l l w i t h W. D. B a n c r o f t , t h e l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n e x p e r t on p h a s e e q u i l i b r i a ( 6 0 ) . T h i s m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y s t a f f d e v e l o p e d an a m b i t i o u s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y program f o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l study of r o c k formation. "Our p l a n , " Day and A l l e n w r o t e , was t o s t u d y t h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o r o f some o f t h e s i m p l e r o c k m a k i n g m i n e r a l s by a t r u s t - w o r t h y method, then t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r i u m f o r s i m p l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e , and t h u s t o r e a c h



1.

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a sound b a s i s f o r t h e s t u d y o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f r o m magma. E v e n t u a l l y , when we a r e a b l e t o v a r y t h e p r e s s u r e w i t h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e over c o n s i d e r a b l e ranges, our knowledge o f the r o c k - f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s s h o u l d become s u f f i c i e n t t o e n a b l e u s t o c l a s s i f y many o f t h e e a r t h - m a k i n g processes i n t h e i r proper place w i t h the q u a n t i t a t i v e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s o f the l a b o r a t o r y (61). P a r t o f t h i s p r o g r a m was r e a l i z e d a t t h e S u r v e y . Between 1901 and 1907, t h e c h e m i s t A l l e n , t h e p h y s i c i s t Day, and t h e p e t r o g r a p h e r , I d d i n g s , completed a r i g o r o u s study o f the thermal p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p l a g i o c l a s e f e l d s p a r s , t h e most a b u n d a n t r o c k f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s . T h i s s t u d y was i m p o r t a n t i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . I t was t h e f i r s t f u l l y q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f cooling s i l i c a t e melts. I t s a u t h o r s i n t r o d u c e d many o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t l a t e r became s t a n d a r d f e a t u r e s i n s u c h r e s e a r c h , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e use o f t h e r m a l r a t h e r t h a n o p t i c a l methods t o d e t e r m i n e m e l t i n g p o i n t s and t h e use o f a r t i f i c i a l m i n e r a l s to g u a r a n t e e p u r i t y . M o r e o v e r , Day and A l l e n e x p l i c i t l y t i e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s t o t h e work o f t h e D u t c h s c h o o l o f p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s b y s h o w i n g t h a t s o d i u m and c a l c i u m f e l d s p a r s f o r m e d a c o n t i n u o u s s e r i e s o f i s o m o r p h i c c r y s t a l s t h a t f i t Type I o f Roozeboom's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s e q u i l i b r i a . This r e s u l t c a s t l i g h t b o t h on t h e p r o c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n — r u l i n g o u t , f o r example, the i d e a t h a t a l l s i l i c a t e m e l t s behaved as e u t e c t i c s — and i t a l s o a l l o w e d Day and A l l e n t o a c c o u n t f o r one o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f f e l d s p a r c r y s t a l s , t h e i r zonal structure. W a l c o t t c a l l e d t h i s w o r k "one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o g e o l o g i c p h y s i c s e v e r p r i n t e d " ; i t was a model f o r subsequent s t u d i e s o f o t h e r s i l i c a t e systems ( 6 2 ) . The r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m , begun a t t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , f l o u r i s h e d a t a new i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t opened i t s d o o r s i n 1907, t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y o f the Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington. S e v e r a l f e a t u r e s o f the h i s t o r y o f t h i s L a b o r a t o r y m e r i t emphasis here. D u r i n g i t s p l a n n i n g s t a g e , w h i c h l a s t e d f r o m 1902 t o 1905, Van H i s e , I d d i n g s , and o t h e r A m e r i c a n p e t r o g r a p h e r s p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e i n g u i d i n g the t r u s t e e s o f the Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of W a s h i n g t o n t o w a r d f u n d i n g t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l s t u d y o f r o c k formation. When i t o p e n e d , t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y was b a s e d l a r g e l y upon t h e s t a f f , t e c h n i q u e s , and r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m t h a t had e v o l v e d a t t h e G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . A r t h u r L . Day was i t s f i r s t d i r e c t o r ; A l l e n h i s c h i e f chemist. The p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s , C l e m e n t and S h e p h e r d moved w i t h them, a s d i d t h e p e t r o g r a p h e r , Wright. U s i n g t h i s g r o u p a s a n u c l e u s , Day expanded t h e s t a f f by h i r i n g o t h e r p e t r o g r a p h e r s and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s : students of R o s e n b u s c h and Z i r k e l and f o r m e r p u p i l s o f t h e A m e r i c a n p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s , A. A. Noyes and W. D. B a n c r o f t . F o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e s e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e U.S.G.S., t h e s e s c i e n t i s t s went a b o u t t h e t a s k o f m e t h o d i c a l l y c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a n e c e s s a r y



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t o c o n s t r u c t phase d i a g r a m s o f two and t h r e e component m i n e r a l systems. The r e s u l t s w e r e o f c a r d i n a l i m p o r t a n c e t o g e o c h e m i s t r y . T h e i r d a t a went a l o n g way t o w a r d f i l l i n g a vacuum i n t h e chemisrJs k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f s i l i c a t e s and s e r v e d as t h e b a s i s f o r N. L. Bowen's t h e o r y o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f i g n e o u s r o c k s , w h i c h , a l t h o u g h n o t u n c h a l l e n g e d , has r e m a i n e d a c o r n e r s t o n e o f t e a c h i n g and r e s e a r c h i n p e t r o l o g y and g e o c h e m i s t r y s i n c e i t was a d v a n c e d i n 1922 ( 5 6 , 6 3 , 6 4 ) . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y as a s t i m u l u s t o w a r d g e o c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h and t r a i n i n g was p e r h a p s as i m p o r t a n t as t h e w o r k c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n i t s w a l l s . When t h e L a b o r a t o r y was f o u n d e d , n e i t h e r i t s p r o m o t e r s n o r i t s s p o n s o r e n v i s i o n e d i t s w o r k as h a v i n g any i m m e d i a t e e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e . Rather i t was e s t a b l i s h e d as a c e n t e r f o r b a s i c r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e p r o c e s s e s of p e t r o g e n e s i s . But s o o n a f t e r t h e L a b o r a t o r y o p e n e d , i t s s t a f f members b e g a n t o make c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f i n d u s t r i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e — s p i n o f f s f r o m t h e i r b a s i c r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m . Day and S h e p h e r d d e v e l o p e d a p r a c t i c a l method f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f q u a r t z g l a s s ; o t h e r s made d i s c o v e r i e s o f v a l u e t o t h e cement and c e r a m i c s i n d u s t r i e s (65-68). D u r i n g W o r l d War I , t h e s t a f f was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e methods t h a t a l l o w e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o become a m a j o r p r o d u c e r o f o p t i c a l g l a s s ( 6 9 ) . A f t e r t h e w a r , many o f t h e s t a f f members f o u n d p o s i t i o n s i n i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h as managers o f f i r m s s u c h as U.S. S t e e l , C o r n i n g G l a s s , and P i t t s b u r g h P l a t e G l a s s , and r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f m i n e r a l s c o u l d a l s o be a p p l i e d t o g l a s s , c e r a m i c s , cement, and m e t a l s . And as t h e m a r k e t f o r g e o c h e m i s t s knowl e d g e b e g a n t o d e v e l o p , so t o o d i d i n t e r e s t i n t h e f i e l d i n universities. O t h e r s t a f f members l e f t t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y a f t e r W o r l d War I t o t a k e p o s i t i o n s a t H a r v a r d , Y a l e , C h i c a g o , and o t h e r c e n t e r s w h e r e t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d some o f t h e f i r s t g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s and r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d s o f p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l p e t r o l o g y and g e o c h e m i s t r y ( 5 6 ) . Nor w e r e t h e s e developments n e g l e c t e d abroad. D u r i n g t h e t e e n s and t w e n t i e s , a stream of f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s v i s i t e d Washington to study the methods o f Day, Bowen, and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s . The g e o p h y s i c a l i n s t i t u t e s i n S e n d a i , J a p a n and Z u r i c k , S w i t z e r l a n d w e r e f o u n d e d by s c i e n t i s t s who had f i r s t w o r k e d a t t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y ; v i s i t o r s a l s o came f r o m O s l o , G r o n i n g e n , and Amsterdam ( 7 0 ) . I t w o u l d be no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y was a t t h e hub o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n g e o c h e m i s t r y i n t h e early twentieth century. I t was a s i t e where p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s and e a r t h s c i e n t i s t s met, e x c h a n g e d i d e a s , and c a r r i e d t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l study of p e t r o g e n e s i s toward i t s l i m i t s i n a laboratory setting. I t was a l s o a c e n t e r t h a t made v i t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s b o t h t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l community o f g e o c h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s and t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a r k e t s f o r their services. By 1915, g e o c h e m i s t r y had become one o f t h o s e f i e l d s i n w h i c h A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s had begun t o assume i n t e r n a t i o n a l 1



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leadership. A m e r i c a n s i n t h i s f i e l d went t o E u r o p e n o t s o much t o l e a r n a s t o t e a c h ; E u r o p e a n s v i s i t e d A m e r i c a n o t s o much t o i n s t r u c t as t o study. The s c i e n c e s upon w h i c h g e o c h e m i s t r y was b a s e d , p e t r o g r a p h y and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , b o t h had t h e i r o r i g i n s i n E u r o p e , b u t A m e r i c a n s s u c h a s I d d i n g s , Van H i s e , Day, a n d Bowen had b e e n i n t h e v a n g u a r d o f t h o s e who s o u g h t t o b r i n g them together. G e o c h e m i s t r y was n o t , o f c o u r s e , t h e o n l y s c i e n t i f i c s p e c i a l t y i n w h i c h Americans were a c q u i r i n g r e p u t a t i o n s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . S i m i l a r advances were b e i n g made i n o t h e r f i e l d s , and e s p e c i a l l y i n new s p e c i a l t i e s : g e n e t i c s , p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y , t h e b i o m e d i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g sciences. I n seeking t o e x p l a i n the success o fAmerican workers i n t h e s e s c i e n c e s i t has become c u s t o m a r y t o l o o k t o w a r d s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s o f the American market o r American u n i v e r s i t y . Market e x p l a n a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y account f o r d i f f e r e n c e s between the r a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t o f s p e c i a l t i e s i n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o l o c a l demands f o r s k i l l s and s e r v i c e s ( 4 ) . E x p l a n a t i o n s based on the s t r u c t u r e of American i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g s t r e s s t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e d e p a r t m e n t and e l e c t i v e s y s t e m and t h e a d a p t a b i l i t y o f a d e c e n t r a l i z e d and c o m p e t i t i v e n e t w o r k o f u n i v e r s i t i e s ( 6 , ]_> 71) . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e s o r t s o f e x p l a n a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , seems r e l e v a n t i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r why t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s h o u l d h a v e become a l e a d i n g s i t e f o r r e s e a r c h i n g e o c h e m i s t r y a t t h e t u r n of the c e n t u r y . When I d d i n g s and Van H i s e b e g a n i n t h e i r r a t h e r s p e c u l a t i v e way t o a p p l y p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y t o g e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h e y h e l d no hope o f i m m e d i a t e and d i r e c t p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . When Day embarked o n t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , he a p p e a r s t o h a v e e n v i s i o n e d l i t t l e i f any e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t . T h e s e w o r k e r s d i d n o t r e s p o n d t o m a r k e t demands, b u t r a t h e r w e r e m o t i v a t e d by the d e s i r e t o account f o r the o r i g i n s , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , and a l t e r a t i o n o f r o c k s — q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e h i s t o r y o f g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o c k s , but which c o u l d h a r d l y be claimed as problems o f economic geology. The a p p l i c a t i o n s t h a t l a t e r a r o s e and c o n t r i b u t e d t o w a r d c r e a t i n g a m a r k e t f o r g e o c h e m i s t s skills were l a r g e l y , i f not w h o l l y , u n a n t i c i p a t e d ( 5 6 ) . Nor i s i t p o s s i b l e t o i n v o k e t h e dynamism o f t h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t y and t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f i t s v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s as a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e g e n e s i s o f a n A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n i n geochemistry. The u n i v e r s i t y was v e r y much o n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f this story. I t s u p p l i e d t r a i n i n g t o p e t r o g r a p h e r s and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t s who w o r k e d a t t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y and t h e Geop h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , b u t c o u r s e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r g e o c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h i n A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s d e v e l o p e d v e r y s l o w l y . When Day s e l e c t e d t h e s t a f f o f t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y , he p i c k e d s c i e n t i s t s w i t h c r e d e n t i a l s i n p e t r o g r a p h y and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y ; t h e y were molded i n t o geochemists a f t e r e n t e r i n g the L a b o r a t o r y . U n i v e r s i t i e s s u c h a s C h i c a g o and C o l u m b i a became i m p o r t a n t s i t e s 1



16


f o r g e o c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h and t r a i n i n g o n l y a f t e r 1 9 3 0 , and l a r g e l y under t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e o u t s i d e o f t h e university setting. I n t h e case of geochemistry, the u n i v e r s i t y was n o t t h e m a t r i x o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . R a t h e r i t was t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey and l a t e r t h e G e o p h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y . T h i s i s n o t t o deny t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m a r k e t s and u n i v e r s i t i e s i n t h e g e n e s i s and d e v e l o p m e n t o f new r e s e a r c h f i e l d s i n turn of the century America. I t i s t o s u g g e s t however t h a t we s h o u l d beware o f l a y i n g undue s t r e s s on m a r k e t f o r c e s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s a t t h e expense o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s . T h e r e i s an i n t e l l e c t u a l b a s i s f o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . Scientists are n o t p o w e r l e s s c a p t i v e s o f market c o n d i t i o n s n o r i s t h e i r s c i e n c e a p a s s i v e s t u f f that adapts i t s e l f to the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . S c i e n t i s t s a r e , or can be, a c t i v e a g e n t s who s h a p e t h e v e s s e l s i n w h i c h t h e y w o r k i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f c o n c e p t u a l n e e d s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I n the c a s e o f g e o c h e m i s t r y , t h e c o n c e p t s w e r e drawn l a r g e l y f r o m p e t r o g r a p h y and p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y . They came t o g e t h e r i n America because t h e r e were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f b o t h o f these t r a d i t i o n s p r e s e n t who p e r c e i v e d a f i t b e t w e e n t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e one f i e l d and t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e o t h e r and who w e r e i n p o s i t i o n s t o mold i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h a new s p e c i a l t y m i g h t grow. A c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y was p r e r e q u i s i t e , b u t i n t h i s c a s e , t h a t f l e x i b i l i t y was n o t t o be f o u n d i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y b u t r a t h e r i n t h e much m a l i g n e d G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y o f t h e p o s t - P o w e l l e r a and i n t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Washington. Acknowledgments I w i s h t o t h a n k D r . L a r r y Owens o f P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y and Dr. R. E. G i b s o n o f t h e A p p l i e d P h y s i c s L a b o r a t o r y o f t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y f o r t h e i r comments o n a n e a r l i e r d r a f t o f t h i s e s s a y , and I g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f Learned S o c i e t i e s and t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n .

Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Kevles, Daniel J. "The Physicists: The History of a S c i e n t i f i c Community i n Modern America"; Knopf: New York, 1978. Badash, Lawrence. "Radioactivity i n America: Growth and Decay of a Science"; Johns Hopkins University Press: B a l t i more, 1979. Rosenberg, Charles E. "No Other Gods: On Science and Ameri can Social Thought"; Johns Hopkins University Press; B a l t i more, 1976; Part 2. Kohler, Robert E. "From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical D i s c i p l i n e " ; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1982. Veysey, Laurence R. "The Emergence of the American Universi ty"; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1975.


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6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.


12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.


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Ben David, Joseph. "The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study"; Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N . J . , 1971; pp. 139-168. Dolby, R. G. A. Annals Sci. 1977, 34, 287-310. Higham, John. In "The Organization of Science in Modern America": Oleson, Alexandra and Voss, John, Ed.; Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 1979; pp. 3-18. Shils, Edward. In "The Organization of Science in Modern America" (Ref. 8); pp. 19-47. Manten, A. A. Chem. Geol. 1966, 1, 5-31. Loewinson-Lessing, F. Y. "A Historical Survey of Petrology"; Tomkeieff, S. I . , Trans.; Oliver & Boyd: Edinburgh, 1954. Brock, W. H. In "Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences": Jordanova, L. J. and Porter, Roy S., Ed.; British Society for the History of Science: Chalfont St. Gilles, 1979; pp. 147-170. Allen, David Elliston, In "Images of the Earth" (Ref. 12); pp. 200-212. Ref. 11, pp. 1-7 and 33-35. Cross, Charles Whitman. Journ. Geol. 1902, 10, 322-376 and 451-499. Iddings, Joseph Paxton. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 1892-1894, 12, 89-214, esp. 91-127. Bascom, F. Johns Hopkins Studies in Geology 1927, no. 8, 33-82. Knopf, Adolph. In "Geology, 1888-1938. Fiftieth Anniversary Volume of the Geological Society of America"; Geological Society of America, 1941; pp. 335-363. Larsen, E. S. In "Geology, 1888-1938" (Ref. 18); pp. 393-413. Bunsen, Robert. Pogg. Ann. Phys. u. Chem. 1851, 83, 197-272. Bunsen, Robert. Zeitsch. Deutsch, Geol. Ges. 1861, 13, 61-63. Durocher, J . Ann. Mines 1857, 11, 220. On the origins of physical chemistry see Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott. Ph.D., Thesis, Princeton University, Princeton, N . J . , 1980. Bancroft, W. D. In "A Half-century of Chemistry in America, 1876-1926"; Browne, Charles Α., Ed.; Chemical Publishing Co.: Easton, Pa., 1926; p. 94. Hoff, J . H. van't. "Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences"; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1903. Jones, Harry Clary. "A New Era in Chemistry"; Constable & Co.: London, 1913. Servos, John W. Ph.D., Thesis, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., 1979; Chapter 2. Riesenfeld, Ernest H. "Svante Arrhenius"; Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft: Leipzig, 1931; pp. 40-47. Ref. 17, pp. 44ff. Mathews, Ε. B. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1933, 44, 352-374. Larsen, E. S. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1958, 32, 100-112.


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32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.


38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.


Knopf, Adolph. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1960, 34, 228-248. Birch, Francis. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1960, 34, 30-64. Dennis, L. M. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1934, 15, 139-165. Iddings. Joseph Paxton. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 1888-1891, 11, 65-114. Ref. 16, pp. 154-156. Iddings, Joseph Paxton. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 1888-1891, 11, 191-220, esp. 212-213 and 217. Ref. 16, pp. 158-160. Ref. 16, p. 194. Chamberlin, T. C. Journ. Geol. 1918, 26, 690-697. Vance, Maurice. "Charles Richard Van Hise: Scientist Progressive"; State Historical Society of Wisconsin: Madison, 1960. Van Hise, Charles R. Science 1902, 16, 326. A. T. Lincoln to C. R. Van Hise, 19 October 1899, U. S. G. S. Lake Superior Division Official Correspondence, Box 6, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. C. R. Van Hise to A. T. Lincoln, 24 October 1899, U. S. G. S. Lake Superior Division Official Correspondence, Van Hise Letterbooks, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Van Hise, Charles R. "A Treatise on Metamorphism"; U. S. Government Printing Office: Washington, 1904. Miller, Benjamin LeRoy. Johns Hopkins Studies in Geology 1927, no. 8, 121-135. Van Hise, Charles R. Journ. Geol. 1900, 8, 730-770. Van Hise, Charles R. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1898, 9, 269-328. Van Hise, Charles R. Journ. Geol. 1904, 12, 589-616. Ref. 49, p. 609. Ref. 49, pp. 610-611 Ref. 42, pp. 322-323. Ref. 19, pp. 395-398. Ref. 11, pp. 42-48. C. D. Walcott to C. R. Van Hise, 24 February 1900, U. S. G. S. Lake Superior Division Correspondence, Box 6, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Servos, John W. Hist. Stud. Phys. S c i . , in press. C. R. Van Hise, J . S. Diller, and S. F. Emmons to C. D. Walcott, 13 March 1900, Box 17, George F. Becker Papers, Library of Congress. Merrill, George. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1920, 21, 1-13. Day, Arthur L. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1919, 31, 14-19. The work of this laboratory may be followed in the U. S. Geological Survey, Annual Report. Day, A. L. and Allen, Ε. T. "Isomorphism and the Thermal Properties of the Feldspars"; Carnegie Institution of Washington: Washington, 1905; p. 17. U. S. Geological Survey, Annual Report 1904-1905, 26, 99. Eugster, Hans P. Biogr. Mem. N. A. S. 1980, 52, 34-79. Tilley, C. E. Biogr. Mem. F. R. S. 1957, 3, 6-22.



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65. Day, A. L. and Shepherd, E. S. Science 1906, 23, 670-672. 66. Shepherd, E. S. and Rankin, G. A. Am. Journ. Sci. 1909, 28, 292-333. 67. Bates, P. H. Journ. Franklin Inst. 1922, 193, 293-294. 68. Sosman, Robert B. "The Properties of Silica"; Chemical Catalog Co.: New York, 1927; pp. 809-812. 69. Wright, F. E. "The Manufacture of Optical Glass and of Optical Systems: A Wartime Problem"; U. S. Government Printing Office: Washington, 1921; pp. 10-13. 70. Arthur L. Day to John C. Merriam, 26 July 1930, Geophysical Laboratory Projects--High Pressure Research Program, files of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C. 71. The two forms of explanation are not mutually exclusive. See Guedon, Jean-Claude. In "History of Chemical Engineering": Furter, William F . , Ed.; American Chemical Society: Wash ington, 1980; pp. 45-75. RECEIVED

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The Intellectual Basis of Specialization - American Chemical Society

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