Chapter 21
The Role of Biotechnology in Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1
Donald W. De Jong and Marshall Phillips
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Tobacco Research Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Oxford, NC 27656
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National Animal Disease Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA 50010
The application of biotechnology to agriculture requires the interaction of many disciplines, and basic as well as applied aspects of science have been essential to advances in agricultural biotechnology. There is little doubt that the field has evolved as rapidly as i t has because commercial interests have been eager to put new discoveries into the marketplace as quickly as possible. In this section on Ag & Fd chemistry we have sought to provide a balanced representation of the basic and the applied--the plant and the animal. This choice was made to demonstrate the broad scope of agricultural biotechnology. Furthermore, we decided to treat biotechnology in its broadest sense rather than the narrow sense of only recombinant DNA. We realize that biochemistry which originated from the fusion of enzyme chemistry with cellular metabolism, provides the framework in which molecular biology functions. Biotechnology uses the molecular processes and the manipulation of the chemical structures established in biochemistry and chemistry laboratories. This is the central impact of chemistry on biotechnology. In this section we present two chapters that are fundamental in nature. They both deal with very complex biochemical processes in plants--nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis. In the first case, i.e., nitrogen fixation, we are dealing with a synergistic association between mutually beneficial organisms living symbiotically. The case described is a cooperative relationship between microorganisms--Rhizobia--and host plants--legumes. The chapter by Stacey discusses the salient features in what is presently known about the interaction between plant and bacterial genes in symbiotic nitrogen fixation. It is conceivable that this research could lead to enlarging the host range of the most efficient bacterial strains, including even monocots as well as nonleguminous dicots. At this point in time the overwhelming complexity of the system precludes genetic tinkering with the apparatus itself. This chapter is not subject to U.S. copyright. Published 1987, American Chemical Society
In The Impact of Chemistry on Biotechnology; Phillips, M., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
Downloaded by SUNY STONY BROOK on February 9, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: January 7, 1988 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1988-0362.ch021
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The second paper of a fundamental nature concerns photosynthesis wherein the cooperation occurs i n t r a c e l l u l a r l y between two organelles, the nucleus and chloroplasts. In response to l i g h t there occurs coordinated expression of genes that code f o r proteins that reside and function i n the chloroplasts. The chapter by Timko, e t . a l . provides an e x c e l l e n t example of the u t i l i t y of recombinant DNA methodology f o r r e s o l v i n g some of complex problems encountered i n plant biochemistry. The long-term objective of t h i s research, of course, i s to f i n d means f o r improving the e f f i c i e n c y of the photosynthetic process. A better understanding of the genetic control systems f o r enzymes which catalyzes CO2 f i x a t i o n could eventually lead to strategies that a l t e r the function of the enzyme. Suggestions have been made that repression or elimination of i t s competing oxygenase a c t i v i t y would improve photosynthetic rates. Whichever strategy proves f e a s i b l e , intimate knowledge of the genetic regulatory mechanism is essential and biotechnology research i s providing t h i s information. I t i s important to note the impact of biotechnology on these two areas of research. From time to time i n the advance of technology, l i m i t s to understanding are reached that hold back further progress. Data continues to accumulate but t h e o r e t i c a l advances stagnate. Then a new technique or c r e a t i v e i n s i g h t a r r i v e s on the scene and progress resumes. This scenario i s true for both nitrogen f i x a t i o n and photosynthesis. U l t i m a t e l y , of course, hopes are high that by genetic manipulation, the n a t u r a l systems can be improved upon to increase the e f f i c i e n c y or extend the range of each of these c r i t i c a l l i f e - s u p p o r t mechanisms. Both papers admit that p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s are not yet attainable; even so the research they describe i s adding valuable information r e l a t i v e to genetic expression of key events r e g u l a t i n g the two fundamental processes. Three presentations address applied aspects of a g r i c u l t u r a l biotechnology. (Chapter by Carlson i s included i n the Chemical Marketing Section.) The general subject matter i s plant tissue culture. Two very p r a c t i c a l and powerful a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s f i e l d have emerged: 1) Screening multitudes of tissue culture entries f o r evidence of somaclonal v a r i a t i o n . With or without s e l e c t i o n pressures t h i s has lead to the generation of novel plant forms that i n theory at l e a s t could have c e r t a i n desirable features not normally found i n extant c u l t i v a r s . Successful r e s u l t s have been reported from a number of laboratories. The contribution by Orton and R e i l l y discusses the relevance of tissue culture to biotechnology directed toward the improvement of plant food products. S p e c i f i c objectives include features that concern industry: processing q u a l i t y ; those that impact consumers: n u t r i t i o n a l and aesthetic properties; and those that are agronomic i n nature and therefore concern farmers: b e t t e r y i e l d , stress tolerance and pest resistance. The second major tissue culture enterprise of p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i s : 2) Propagating vegetative clones of important crop plants to ensure disease-free and genetically stable p l a n t l e t s ready f o r transplanting to the
In The Impact of Chemistry on Biotechnology; Phillips, M., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
Downloaded by SUNY STONY BROOK on February 9, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: January 7, 1988 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1988-0362.ch021
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field. Crop Genetics International has been successful i n introducing tissue culture techniques into the production of sugar cane plantlets on a commercial scale. Carlson c i t e s the difficulties encountered when a perfectly logical and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y feasible project, i . e . , developing a disease-free banana c u l t i v a r , i s proposed f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n the Third World. In countries where a given product of biotechnology i s apt to be most desperately needed, b a r r i e r s to development may totally prevent research as w e l l as implementation. These two papers focus on d i f f e r e n t aspects of a common theme: that i s , impediments to adoption of biotechnology p r a c t i c e s and products. To Orton with an eye toward the sophisticated market structure of developed economies the major constraint i s regulatory, whereas Carlson stresses the s t r a t e g i c constraints that one faces i n the Third World s e t t i n g . Both issues must be recognized i n r e a l i s t i c terms regardless of whatever technical hurdles need to be overcome. The issue of socio-political constraints to implementation of a g r i c u l t u r a l biotechnology also tempers the generally o p t i m i s t i c projections i n Hardy's look into the future. The paper by Reed describes the fortunes of a r e l a t i v e l y new company that has concentrated i t s e f f o r t s on the development of products f o r the farm animal business. Reed describes both successes and f a i l u r e s i n the company's e f f o r t s to introduce products of biotechnology into the marketplace. Most of the products he describes are vaccines or immunizing agents for diseases of l i v e s t o c k that have h i s t o r i c a l l y been d i f f i c u l t or expensive to control. Other products discussed provide diagnostic services to veterinary medicine. The products of Molecular Genetics have resulted p r i m a r i l y from recombinant DNA procedures including u t i l i z a t i o n of monoclonal antibody technology; but Reed suggests that other technologies besides rDNA might be more appropriate to a given need. He states that "...goals must be l i n k e d to ... improved l i v e s t o c k performance not to...a p a r t i c u l a r technology." According to Reed the fate of biotechnology products i s more often affected by economic or regulatory considerations than by actual c a p a b i l i t y to manufacture the substance. What can we expect with regard to the projected impact of biotechnology upon the value of farm or associated a g r i c u l t u r a l enterprises? I t has been estimated that biotechnology could generate an a d d i t i o n a l $100 b i l l i o n to the value of American agriculture--which represents a doubling i n value due to biotechnology applications alone. This p r o j e c t i o n may not take into consideration the nontechnical hurdles--environmental and public resistance among others--that could impede adoption of biotechnology on a massive scale. Hardy deals with these and r e l a t e d issues i n h i s projections into the future. Although, the prospects f o r advancement into new a g r i c u l t u r a l f r o n t i e r s are mind-boggling and could a f f e c t almost every aspect of a g r i c u l t u r e p r e d i c t i n g the precise d i r e c t i o n of development requires more than a crystal b a l l . Even today, at the threshold of new advances i n molecular genetics a very sobering assessment by three prominent plant s c i e n t i s t s concluded that "...our technical a b i l i t y to
In The Impact of Chemistry on Biotechnology; Phillips, M., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
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i s o l a t e and transfer genes into plants has surpassed our l e v e l of biochemical understanding required for their rational manipulation" (1).
Downloaded by SUNY STONY BROOK on February 9, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: January 7, 1988 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1988-0362.ch021
Our preferred d e f i n i t i o n f o r biotechnology i s that i t i s the a p p l i c a t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l systems and organisms to technical and i n d u s t r i a l processes. The target of biotechnology i n a g r i c u l t u r e i s to help solve h i g h - p r i o r i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l problems such as conserving the q u a l i t y of natural resources, reducing farm production costs, improving crop p r o t e c t i o n and production e f f i c i e n c y , enhancing market value and q u a l i t y of farm products, and promoting human health through better n u t r i t i o n .
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Literature Cited Fraley, R. T.; Rogers, S. G.; Horsch, R. B. CRC Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences: 1986, 4, 1-46.
RECEIVED August 19, 1987
In The Impact of Chemistry on Biotechnology; Phillips, M., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
