THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY IN THE SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES OF FRANCE* MAURICEDBSCHIENS,~ 29 ROUTE DB NOISY-LE-SEC. ROHAINVILLE (SEINE). FRANCE
Chemistry in Pre-University Instruction In Latin countries the traditional emphasis upon literary instruction has the advantage of developing the mind and promoting clear and methodical expression of thought. In regard to instruction in the sciences (Latin sciences, language sciences, and elementary mathematics) chemistry is usually given a secondary place and is generally taught by a professor who is more of a physicist than a chemist. The first elements of the subject are usually given one hour weekly at about the seventh year to students between twelve and thirteen years of age. The instruction is very superficial and embraces the principles of chemical nomenclature, the properties of certain common elements and compounds, such as CIS, HCl, H2S04, the metals and carbon, followed by simple notions of organic chemistry. The practical work is very elementary and consists principally of such experiments, demonstrated by the professor and his assistants, as will serve to stimulate the taste of the students for experimental science. This cycle of studies prepares for the first part of the baccalaureate, which consists only of an oral examination upon the ground covered. In the classes of philosophy and even more so in those of elementary mathematics, the teaching of chemistry is a little more complete and prepares for the second part of the baccalaureate. It sometimes includes in addition to the required oral examination a simple problem or written questions upon chemistry. Those who continue their studies with the view of preparing for the advanced schools, of which the programs will be reviewed later (classes of special mathematics, of the Central School, and of theAgronomic Institute), find the chemical programs more comprehensive, especially in regard to chemical laws and the study of the metalloids. These programs, however, are arrauged principally in reference to the questions which might be asked in the examinations for entrance to the advanced schools. The deficiencies which exist in the pre-university teaching of chemistry are common to most countries. There is little doubt that in France greater appreciation of the r81e of chemistry and of the experimental sciences in general is resulting in the improvement of the programs of instruction and the attraction to chemistry of students of the highest qualifications. *Translated by Atherton Seidell, Hygienic Laboratory, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. 1 Ingenieur chimiste and member of the Bureau of the Soci6t6 de chide industrielle de France, 1544
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Chemistry in the Science Faculties of the Universities
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The courses of chemical instruction in the science faculties prepare the students for the several certificates (licence 4s sciences), of which the principal ones are general chemistry, applied chemistry, physical chemistry, biological chemistry, etc., to which should be added the certificate of physical science, physics, chemistry, and natural science (P.C.N.). These certificates can be obtained only by students who have successfully passed the baccalaureates. The programs of the courses corresponding to the various certificates are given the greatest attention by the professors and lecturers, and consequently chemical courses in the faculties of science are excellent. A detailed exposition of these programs will be given later in connection with the description of the teaching of chemistry in the institutes and schools of chemistry of the faculties of science. In regard to theoretical instruction, the courses are essentially the same in the different branches of chemistry. One of the most useful of them is that of general chemistry for which the instruction may have a very favorable influenceupon subsequent studies, since it provides a thorough foundation in chemical laws and the broad relations existing among chemical compounds. In addition to instruction in theory, practical work and manipulations familiarize the students with the laboratory, insure a better comprehension of the facts described in the lectures and emphasize their practical application. The three certificates of licence (sciences) give the holder the right to the title licencibds-sciences, which is a state diploma. In this connection it should be remarked that if the student is a candidate for the degree of Doctor d'Etat 4s-sciences physique, which makes him eligible to a professorship, he must have obtained as one of his certificates that of general physics. For the doctorat d'ztat no additional courses are required, but the candidate is given daily practical instruction in the laboratory of the professor under whom he prepares his thesis. The thesis must be an original research upon a subject recommended by the professor, and upon completion must be defended before a special jury designated by the faculty. In addition to this original work, the faculty prescribes a secondary question which is simply a subject for review. This doctorate really marks the completion of the university chemical instruction leading to a professorship. It prepares the student for original scientific research which is the foundation of all useful discoveries. It develops his reasoning as well as his appreciation of method and deduction and is the initial stage of a future master. In addition to this doctorat d'Etat there exists a doctorat d'unininrersiti, for which the licence 6s-sciences is not obligatory and which consists in the presentation of an original thesis upon the same conditions as those pre-
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scribed for the doctorat d'Etat. The doctorat d'universitb does not, however, confer eligibility to a French professorship. Chemistry in the Institutes and Schools of Chemistry The transformations which the chemical industries are undergoing, the improvements and the incessant changes which must be introduced in order to meet ever-increasing world competition, and the necessity for reducing the cost of production, are the factors which determine progress. They cannot be resolved economically except by industrialists aided by collaborators possessing serious scientific and economic knowledge in which chemistry, physics, mechanics, and also personal and moral qualities necessarily play a considerable rBle. In order to furnish to industry these collaborators and chiefs which it demands, there has been created in most of the faculties of science of the universities special institutes and schools of chemistry. Although they form a part of the faculties of science they, nevertheless, usually have a fairly autonomous existence. They may be subventioned by the state, the cities, the departments, the communes, the industrial societies, the chambers of commerce, industrialists or such individuals as are interested in the progress of science and its applications. This financial independence confers a certain freedom which often manifests itself by programs adapted specially to the industrial needs of the region. The students are chosen by competition, irrespective of the university degrees already obtained, or in certain cases from among the bacheliers as-sciences. The age of entrance is in general 18 years. The cycle of studies extends over three years, and upon its successful completion a diploma of chemical engineer is awarded. The particular aim of the instruction is to develop in the student the notion of discipline, responsibility, and the spirit of the scientific method. The courses, lectures, and practical work are judiciously coordinated with these ends in view. The studies are pursued to a degree that will permit the student on leaving the school to become the real collaborator of the industrialist. The training is such that he will be proficient in reading and understanding original researches and be able to derive from them all possible applications. The aim is to make the future engineer a competent collaborator of physicists, mechanicians, architects, and all with whom he must work. The theoretical courses in chemistry given herewith are either common to those of the licences Ps-sciences or individual according to the Institute. Resume of the Program of the Theoretical Courses Mineral Chemistry-Study of all the metalloids and their compounds. Study of the properties and the preparations of the alkali and alkaline earth metals. The magnesian metals. Series of iron and chromium. Rare earths. Precious metals.
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Copper. Silver. Mercury. Gold and Platinum. Electro-metallurgy of the metals, etc. Acyclic saries: Generalitieshydrocarhons, alcohols. Organic Chemistrg.-(a) aldehydes, ketones, acids, amines, amides, nitriles, complex groups, sugars, uric acid group, etc. (b) Cyclic Series: Generalities-benzene group with the principal groups which combine with benzene. Cyclicterpenes and different compounds employed in perfumery. General Chemistrv-Physical and electrochemical unitsthermochemistrv. barometry, liquefaction of gases, thermodynamical principles, work of gases, law of Joule, calorimetrv of thermachemisw, formula of Clapeyron, laws of chemical . mincioles . equilibrium, chemical affinity, etc. General Laws of Chemistry.-Vapor density, dissociation, phase rule, alloys, cryoscopy, tonometry, ebullioscopy, ionization, rotatory power, etc. Osmotic hessure.-General laws applicable t o gases and solutions. Law of equilibrium, variation of equilibrium with temperature and pressure, equilibrium in solutions, rapidity of reactions of different orders. Catalysis, etc. Electrochemistry-Law of Faraday, specific and molecular conductibility. Electromotive forces, electrolysis, cells and batteries, origin of electrical energy, large electro-chemical industries. Relation between physics and rational mechanics.
In the case of the individual courses they are in general superior to those of the licence, principally in regard to application, for they give a general view of present chemical industry and of its tendencies. These courses are those of general chemistry; mineral chemistry (metals, metalloids); analytical chemistry (qualitative, quantitative, microscopical detection of traces, spectroscopy, industrial analysis, mineral and organic) ;physical chemistry; theoretical and practical electrochemistry; in addition to a very large program of industrial chemistry. These form the basis of the theoretical instruction and extend over two years. Courses in higher mathematics (differential and integral calculus, analytical geometry, mechanics), technology, physics (general, acoustics, optics, heat, electricity), and of industrial drawing are also included in the regular program of the first two years of the institute. In addition to this theoretical instruction in these first two years a very important place is reserved for practical work in analytical chemistry, organic chemistry, physical and electrochemistry, as well as the testing of machines (thermic, electris, etc.) and periods of work in the various shops (glass, wood, metal). The mean length of time consecrated to this practical work may be placed a t 900 to 1000 hours per scholastic year. Frequent quizzes and semester examinations are given as well as examinations a t the end of each year. The usual passing mark is twelve in twenty, thus requiring sustained work on the part of the students and insuring the retention only of those best qualified. Beginning with the second year there are special courses in applied chemistry, mineralogy, solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, metallurgy, metallography, etc. Some of the institutes and schools give a t the end of these two years and after examination a certificate of chemist. In the third year,
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in addition to intensive instruction in purely chemical branches, specialized courses are offered in those subjects involving the application of engineering. They include the heavy chemical industry, its material and industrial material in general, the refractory products, the coloring matters and dyes, the agricultural industries, the perfumery industry, etc. It is also deemed indispensable to teach to the students the great principles of political and industrial economy, and to show them that an industry cannot develop unless it can find sufficient outlets for its products. But these outlets depend essentially upon the extent of world consumption and production, and also upon the relation between the cost of the merchandise as i t leaves the factory and its possible price of sale on the market. These last elements are a function of the cost of production and in a certain measure the extent of the import taxes and the rights attached to industrial property, factors which in themselves constitute new instruction. Such is the object of the courses in industrial economy: economic administration, financial and technical organization, law, industrial and employees' legislation, accounting, industrial hygiene, etc. This instruction has a high economic and moral object. It serves to develop an appreciation of the rble played by the engineer, the chemist, the director, and in general of all those who participate to any degree whatever in production. In the third year the practical studies are supplemented by industrial tests related to the heavy chemical industry and to technology. Factories are visited and often during the second semester a research problem in the field chosen by the student is suggested by the professor. In general the problem includes a project of installing a factory, or part of a factory, related to the industry studied, with designs and plans, estimates of cost of production, etc. During the three years of studies written, practical and oral examinations are given and the required passing mark is usually twelve to fifteen out of a possible twenty. Upon the successful completion of the courses a diploma of chemical engineer is awarded to the student by the university or by the Under-Secretary of State for Technical Instruction. Such instruction, as above outlined, always kept abreast of the scientific and industrial advances, has provided France with a corps of chemical engineers of high technical skill. This is attested by the commanding position which they occupy in science and in industry both in France and abroad. Although the diploma may he obtained in three years, technical requirements of industrial life and the necessity for the most thorough preparation on the part of all who desire to pursue scientific research, incite many students to continue a fourth, and sometimes even further years of training. The supplementary years may include a research such, for example, as the required thesis for a doctoral d'Etat (licence-Bs-sciences physiques required) or doctorat d'Universitk. This is generally pursued in special laboratories
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under the direction of a professor who is a specialist in the field selected. In addition to the institutes serving particularly the industrial necessities of a given region there are institutes and schools of a more specialized character which are in a measure the center of training in special branches of industry. Such are the Institutes and Schools of Brewing, Metallurgy and Mining Industry (Nancy), Tannery (Lyons), Soaps and Fats (Marseille), Petroleum (Strasbourg), Carburants (Montpellier), Paper (Grenoble), Turpentine and Rosin (Bordeaux), etc. These institutes give a diploma of specialized engineer (brewing, metallurgical, and mineral industries, etc.) after an examination taken a t the end of three years of study. The courses there given relate to the special industry studied and the programs include problems of industrial application, operations on a factory scale, etc. These institutes and schools, as indeed all French universities, are freely and very cordially open to foreign students and investigators.
