~ 0 6 2
T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A Y D ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
surgeon who, in giving the results of his observations on
2000
cases of men Who had been gassed 4 Or 5 months PrevioUslY,
stated that there was no indication of the development of tuberculosis, no indication of the opening up of any old tubercular lesions in any of these gas cases, and that the majority of them seemed to indicate that they would become entirely normal. The question of research is one that bothers us a great deal, if the Chemical Warfare Service is to live. The surprise effect of a new chemical is often the most important thing connected with it. For instance, if we could discover a new gas that would penetrate the enemy’s gas mask, manufacture i t secretly in large quantities, and spring it on him as the German sprang the first gas cloud on the English a t Ypres, we might win the campaign. Secrecy is, therefore, one of the most important things connected with OUT research, and it is unfortunate that the average chemist likes to put the results of his investigations in the journals. I have thought of attempting research through the various institutions, through the National Defense council and its relations with the universities and societies; but I feel almost certain that if any of the institutions, the universities or societies, made a discovery, they would advertise it to the world, G~~ warfare research that becomes good than it is than bad. It does the enemy ,doesyou, especially in a countrylike this which is never in a hurry to prepare for war, while others may be, I have thought that, if Congress retains a permanent Chemical Warfare Service the Army, the best plan would be to have one big diplomatic, thoroughly scientific chemist, who would keep in touch with the various institutions and universities which have been doing work along lines similar to those that are indicated as best for US to pursue, and who could go to these institutions and say: “The Government wantsto this man for one year, or t h a t man for two years.” Of course, we would expect to pay the requisite salary. Such a man coming into our laboratories would become thoroughly impressed with the fact that secrecy is, above all, the most important element. I n that way the Government could keep in touch with the work being done by the various chemical and educational institutions in this country, and still maintain secrecy. I believe that is the best plan we could adopt. If we should attempt to have a chemical research organization of om, and commission men in the to such work, they would be certain to get into a rut and get behind the times. The Chemical Warfare Service has a great deal of research information, it has issued many monographs of research a t the American University, it is willing and glad to give any information possible to the industries as long as it does not reveal some important military secret, and it wants to keep in touch with, and work with, the commercial industries in this country. WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE WORK OF THE HARRIMAN RESEARCH LABORATORY, ROOSEVELT HOSPITAL, NEW YORK CITY, IN AFFILIATION WITH THE DIVISION’ OF FOOD AND NUTRITION, MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, U. S. ARMY By K. GEOROBFALK Received June 7, 1919
In November 1917, Major (later Lieutenant Colonel) John R. Murlin, in charge of the Division of Food and Nutrition, assigned the subject, “The Protein Decomposition of Meat,” to the Harriman Research Laboratory for study. Three lines of investigation were begun: ( I ) The chemical study of meat
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spoilage; (2) a study of the factors upon which the toxic actions of spoiled meat depend; (3) a study of the methods for preventing spoilage. The study of the prevention of spoilage resulted in the new vacuum dehydration process, applicable as well to other food products, including fish, fruits, and vegetables. This led t o a comparative study of the enzymes, proteins, and carbohydrates of fresh vegetables and of vegetation dehydrated by different processes. In the study of the chemistry of spoiling meat,’ the guantitative changes in the ammonia, non-protein nitrogen, total creatinine, and purines, were followed in meat broth inoculated with nine different strains of bacteria, most of which were obtained from meat considered responsible for food poisonings. Definite chemical differences were found in the changes brought about by the different bacteria. It is probable that a continuation of this work would aid in making it possible to identify bacteria by their metabolic actions and in the preparation of suitable synthetic media, different for different bacteria. The increase in the ammonia content observed in all these actions was studied further in connection with its use as a test for meat The toxic properties of meat infected with various strains of bacteria obtained from food suspected of having caused poisoning were studied as well as meat from animals suffering from septicaemia. The conclusions from this work together with the published literature show that meat from animals healthy a t the time of slaughter, but becoming infected after killing, if thoroughly cooked, may, in general terms, be considered safe to eat. Meat from animals infected a t the time of slaughter may contain heat-stable toxins and is therefore unsafe as food even if thoroughly cooked.3 The possible formation of methylguanidine from creatine was studied because of the toxic properties of the former. None was found in spoiled meat in quantities Of toxic symptoms.4 sufficientto be the The problems of the existing emergency as related to the use of meat involved transportation and the safety factor of food handling. To solve these problems, a new process of dehydration was developed with Dr. E. M. Frankel. After the principles and method had been worked out on a laboratory scale, the process was applied on a commercial scale with the aid of Prof. Ralph H. McKee, of Columbia University. The method Consists essentially in removing the water from food substances in a vacuum a t a temperature below that at which appreciable changes in the foods occur, supplying the requisite quantity of heat rapidly enough to forestall spoilage. The process was devised mainly for meat and fish but has been applied to vegetables, fruits and other food substances as we11.6 The advantages of the vacuum process as compared with the older air-blast dehydration processes are ( I ) shorter time required for dehydration; ( 2 ) applicability to such products a s meat and fish; (3) general character and appearance of products; (4) more economical operation; (5) smaller chemical changes. The disadvantage a t present is a greater initial cost of apparatus, but this would be written off in a few months of operation. The study of the dehydration process for various foods led to the question of changes taking place in vegetables on simple treatments, such as dehydration. The destruction of the antiscorbutic property toward guinea pigs of certain vegetables dehydrated by the air-blast process indicated the timely importance of such studies. In general, the question of food hormones (including in this term vitamines, antiscorbutic property, growth-producing property, etc.) has become prominent 1
K. G. Falk, E. J. Raumann and G. McGuire, J . Bid. Chem., 37
(1919), 525. 2
a 6
K. G. Falk and G . McGuire, I b i d . , 37 (19191, 547. I. Greenmald, J . Pub. Health, 8 (1919), 595. I, Greenwald, J . Chem. (1919), 1109. THISJOURNAL, 11 (1919), 1036.
Nov., 1919
T H E J O U R N A L O F 14V D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
in recent years in connection with the development of certain pathological conditions due to the lack of these chemically unknown constituents in diets apparently adequate in protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral components, and calories. A series of studies was undertaken with the object of obtaining further evidence of the changes occurring in biological material and with the hope of obtaining some insight into the chemical nature of the changes. This part of the work was limited to vegetables and included enzymes, proteins, and carbohydrates. The properties of the oxidase, peroxidase, catalase, and amylase of cabbage, carrot, yellow and white turnip, tomato, and potato juices were studied a t different hydrogen ion concentrations. Certain changes in the enzyme actions and properties were found on dehydrating these vegetables, air-blast dehydration producing considerably greater changes than vacuum dehydration.' An extended study of potato amylase was begun. The action of this enzyme on potato starch as it exists in the juice pressed from the potato and on Lintner starch prepared from potatoes was found to be different. Optimum conditions with both were found a t a hydrogen ion concentration very nearly IO-^ N , approximately the acidity of the natural juice. On naturally occurring starch good action was obtained in more acid solution, but practically none on Lintner prepared starch. The conditions were reversed in the more alkaline solutions, marked action on prepared starch and very little on natural starch. The titration curves of the juices were obtained by plotting the hydrogen ion concentrations (in terms of p H) against the amounts of standard acid and alkali required to obtain these hydrogen ion concentrations. Differences were observed between the titration curves of the juices from the fresh and the dehydrated vegetables. These indicated that a change took place on dehydration in the sense that the acidic constituents were increased, more so in air-blast dehydration than in vacuum dehydration. A study of the physicochemical properties of the proteins of potato, tomato, and carrot, was made.2 The hydrogen ion concentrations, iso-electric points, and titration curves of the juices of these vegetables and the proteins prepared from them were determined. The proteins were separated and purified by several different methods, including precipitation a t the iso-electric points, salting out, and dialysis. It was found that every physical or chemical treatment modified the properties of these proteins to some extent, as evidenced by the titration curves, and that apparently the least change in their preparation was brought about by precipitation a t the iso-electric points. The effect of different methods of dehydration on the carbohydrate constituents of carrots, turnips, cabbage, and potatoes, was determined. A full description will appear in a future issue of THISJOURNAL Reducing sugars, soluble starch and dextrins, and insoluble starch were determined in fresh, vacuumdehydrated, and air-blast-dehydrated products. No changes were observed in these constituents as a result of the dehydration processes. The physiological actions of the dehydrated vegetables are being studied by Dr. Maurice H. Givens of Rochester University, by Dr. K. Sugiura of General Memorial Hospital, New York, and by others and will presumably be communicated later. The work described in this part of the investigations shows that dehydration does not produce changes which can be observed by ordinary chemical methods; that physicochemical methods show changes in fresh vegetables on very simple treatments and also some changes in these same vegetables on dehydration, greater in air-blast dehydration than in vacuum; and that changes in enzyme actions may be caused by dehydration, greater in air-blast de1
K. G . Falk, G. McGuire and E. Blount, J . B i d . Chem., 58 (1919),
2
E. J . Cohn, J. Gross and 0.C. Johnson, J . Gen. Physiol., 1919.
229.
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hydration than in vacuum. In general, it appears that enzyme action is the most sensitive index of change taking place in animal or vegetable matter susceptible to simple tests, but that modifications in the enzyme actions need not necessarily be accompanied by changes in food hormone properties or in the nutritive values of foodstuffs. HARRIMAN RESEARCH LABORATORY ROOSEVELT HOSPITAL NEWYORKCITY
CHARCOAL IN SWEDEN B y J. W. BECKMAN Received April 16, 1919
I t is a well-recognized fact all over the world that Swedish charcoal iron stands a t the very top of ironproducts; its reputation is of long standing and its name has become a by-word when high-grade iron products are spoken of. Sweden does hold large deposits of high-grade iron ores. Enormous tonnages of these ores are shipped to most industrial countries of the world including the United States of America, but these alone do not make the Swedish iron world-famous. I t is the superior quality of the charcoal used as a reducing agent that gives the Swedish iron its excellent characteristics. The charcoal demands for an iron industry, even of the size of Sweden's, are enormous, and recently some illuminating statistics have been published showing in detail the production of charcoal there, all of which is consumed by the iron furnaces. Charcoal is derived in Sweden from three sources. The principal source is that of pit-charcoal operations out in the woods and forests of Sweden; next in importance is the pit charcoal obtained from the waste from lumber operations and paper mills where slabs and sides are made into charcoal; the third source is the by-product charcoal oven which contributes only a comparatively small amount of charcoal, yet a t the same time represents considerable financial returns on account of the commercial value of the by-products obtained. The statistics deal principally with the production of the years 1914 and 191j, but, due to the intensive war activities, it is safe to assume that the charcoal prodtiction during the later war years has increased tremendously. 1 Charcoal produced during 1914 in the forests of Sweden amounted to 55.9 million bushels, 2 0 8 million bushels were obtained from the wood wastes of lumber mills and paper pulp plants, while 7.1 million bushels were derived from the byproduct charcoal ovens operating on stumps, mill waste, and other wood-a total production of 83.8 million bushels of charcoal for the year 1914. c During the year 191.5the charcoal made in pits from mill waste, as well as in the forests, amounted to 94.4 million bushels, while in by-product ovens 6.2 million bushels were obtained, or a total production of 100.6 million bushels. All the charcoal made in Sweden is that obtained from soft wood and a bushel weighs about 1 4 lbs., giving a total tonnage as follows: YEAR 1914.. 1915
TOTAL WEIGHT, TONS
. . . . . . . . . 536,320 ...... . . . . . 636,000
PRICE PER TON $22.50 $22.50
TOTAL VALUE $12,067,000 15,900,000
All this charcoal is consumed by the iron industry in Sweden, a part of which is now using electric shaft furnaces for the purpose of saving the charcoal for reduction purposes only, producing in this way close to three times as much metal with the same amount of charcoal, the electric energy supplying the heat necessary for the reduction. But in addition to the value of the charcoal alone the byproducts obtained from the oven installations represent considerable value. From the 7 . 1 million bushels of charcoal produced in by-
