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Thermoelectric power generation from lanthanum strontium titanium oxide at room temperature through the addition of graphene Yue Lin, Colin Norman, Deepanshu Srivastava, Feridoon Azough, Li Wang, Mark Robbins, Kevin Simpson, Robert Freer, and Ian A. Kinloch ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b03522 • Publication Date (Web): 22 Jun 2015 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on June 30, 2015

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ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

Thermoelectric power generation from lanthanum strontium titanium oxide at room temperature through the addition of graphene Yue Lin±, Colin Norman±, Deepanshu Srivastava±, Feridoon Azough±, Li Wang±, Mark Robbins§, Kevin Simpson§, Robert Freer±*, and Ian A. Kinloch±* ±

The School of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL,

United Kingdom. §

European Thermodynamics Ltd, 8 Priory Business Park, Kibworth, Leicester, LE8 0RX, United Kingdom *

Address correspondence to [email protected], and

[email protected].

KEYWORDS: graphene; bulk strontium titanate; environmental friendly; high thermoelectric performance; broad thermal window.

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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ABSTRACT

The applications of strontium titanium oxide based thermoelectric materials are currently limited by their high operating temperatures of > 700 °C. Herein, we show that the thermal operating window of lanthanum strontium titanium oxide (LSTO) can be reduced to room temperature by the addition of a small amount of graphene. This increase in operating performance will enable future applications such as generators in vehicles and other sectors. The LSTO composites incorporated one percent or less of graphene and were sintered under an argon/hydrogen atmosphere. The resultant materials were reduced and possessed a multiphase structure with nano-sized grains. The thermal conductivity of the nanocomposites decreased upon the addition of graphene whereas the electrical conductivity and power factor both increased significantly. These factors, together with a moderate Seebeck coefficient meant that, a high power factor of ~2500 μWm-1K-2 was reached at room temperature at a loading of 0.6 wt% graphene. The highest thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) was achieved when 0.6 wt% graphene was added (ZT = 0.42 at room temperature and 0.36 at 750 °C), with >280 % enhancement compared to that of pure LSTO. A preliminary 7-couple device was produced using bismuth strontium cobalt oxide (BSCO)/graphene-LSTO pucks. This device had a Seebeck coefficient of ~1500 μV/K and an open voltage of 600 mV at a mean temperature of 219 °C.


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INTRODUCTION Currently, about two thirds of the energy generated from hydrocarbon sources such as oil and gas, is lost as waste heat.1-2 In order to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon dioxide emissions, there is increasing interest in high performance thermoelectric materials to harvest some of this waste energy.1-5 Thermoelectric materials are able to directly convert heat to electrical energy, via the Seebeck effect, in which an electromotive force develops when the materials are located in a temperature gradient. Thermoelectric power generation is a rapidly growing sector with applications in many areas including automotive, aerospace, heavy manufacturing industries and remote power generation.1, 5-7 The efficiency of a thermoelectric material is characterized by the dimensionless figure of merit (ZT) which is defined as ZT = (S2σ/κ)T, where S, σ, κ and T are the Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and temperature, respectively. A number of high ZT metallic thermoelectric materials have been developed in the past three decades, such as tellurium (Te) based compounds2-3, 8 and selenium (Se) based compounds4, 9. However, these materials are usually too heavy, expensive and/or toxic to find universal application, particularly when the environmental impact is considered.5 Furthermore, they are limited in their ability to harvest electricity at high temperatures, such as from solar and industrial waste heat due to their decomposition and volatilization at elevated temperatures.5, 10-11 Over the last decade, there has been growing interest in alternatives to these alloys, and this interest has led to the development of oxide based materials.5 Recent reviews5-6, 12-14 have highlighted the potential of a range of oxides including those based on SrTiO3, ZnO, TiO2, CaMnO3 and Ca3Co4O9. The perovskite-type strontium titanate (SrTiO3) has attracted significant interest owing to its large carrier effective mass, good thermal stability at high temperature, and strong structural


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tolerances for substitutional doping.6 A popular route for enhancing the thermoelectric performance of SrTiO3, which is poor in its intrinsic form, is to increase its electrical conductivity by doping. SrTiO3 can be easily modified by doping with either trivalent elements (e.g. Lanthanum (La) and dysprosium (Dy)) at the Sr sites,15-16 and pentavalent elements (e.g. Niobium (Nb)) at the Ti sites17-19. Additionally, efforts have been made to reduce the thermal conductivity while preserving the electrical conductivity.7 In the SrTiO3 system, reduction of the thermal conductivity has been achieved by creating oxygen vacancies20, nanostructuring21-22 and inclusion of fillers with low thermal conductivity23. Wang et al.15 doped SrTiO3 with La and Dy using a conventional solid-state reaction method. The power factor (defined as S2σ) reached 1318 μ W/K2m, and a ZT of 0.36 was obtained at 803 °C with 12% Dy and 8% La doping. Dang et al.21 prepared self-assembled particulate films from La-SrTiO3 nanocubes, with assistance of UV irradiation. After calcination at 1000 °C under a reducing atmosphere, the film exhibited a Seebeck coefficient of -239 μV/K, electrical conductivity of 160 S/cm, and low thermal conductivity of 1.5 W/mK, which resulted in a high ZT value of 0.2 at room temperature, compared with that of 0.08 for a La-SrTiO3 single crystal with similar composition.

Although significant progress has been made in the enhancement of the thermoelectric performance of SrTiO3, major challenges remain. The critical parameters of S, σ, and κ are interdependent, which complicates the efforts to improve the average ZT of the material. The thermoelectric properties of SrTiO3 continue to be inferior to those of the traditional metal materials. This low ZT has restricted the commercial application of oxide based materials. Thus, SrTiO3 based thermoelectric materials with higher ZT are desirable. Furthermore, thermoelectric materials have a ‘thermal window’ within which they are able to convert heat energy into


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electrical energy; effectively an operating range within which the materials display useful properties. Outside this temperature range, which is unique to any particular material, the material has little or no ability to generate electrical energy in response to heat. Consequently, the exploitation of these materials in different applications is limited not only by their ZT values but also by the range of temperature within which they operate. Very few of the existing thermoelectric materials exhibit a broad thermal window, for example, from room temperature to 750 °C. Thus, for a typical thermoelectric device employed in dynamic thermal conditions, the performance is never optimal. For conditions with large temperature variations, thermoelectric materials with different thermal windows are assembled together (so called ‘cascade’ structure) to fabricate a suitable thermoelectric device, which complicates the fabrication process and significantly increases cost. Therefore, the synthesis of a material with a broad thermal window or a technique which can produce this kind of material are vitally important, in order to optimise device performance and simplify device integration. The formulation we selected La0.67Sr0.9TiO3 was based on the earlier work on La doped strontium titanates12, 24, and optimised following trial investigations. It provides the simplicity of charge balance for standard oxidation states, but phonon scattering by A-site vacancies under reduced conditions.

Graphene has attracted much attention because of its unique and valuable properties.25-27 It has been reported that graphene has a giant Seebeck coefficient of 30 mV/K,28 charge carrier mobility of over 2 x 105 cm2/Vs,29 electrical conductivity of above 106 S/m30, as well as extraordinary electronic transport properties31-33. With these exceptional properties, graphene has considerable potential as second phase to enhance the thermoelectric properties of existing thermal and electric materials, in particular through the improvement of the charge carrier


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conductivity. The incorporation of graphene has shown improvements in metal34-35 and polymer36-38 based thermoelectric materials. However, the application of graphene in oxide based materials, such as SrTiO3, has not, to the authors’ knowledge been investigated before. Herein, we report new thermoelectric behaviour for bulk graphene/lanthanum strontium titanium oxide nanocomposites. Rather than working within a narrow ‘thermal window’, these nanocomposites exhibit useful ZT values across a broad temperature range of several hundred degrees. The thermoelectric performance is further demonstrated in a prototype 7-couple device. This discovery highlights an alternative strategy to nanostructuring for developing high-performance, environmental friendly and low cost bulk thermoelectric materials. It may provide the foundation for the application of thermoelectric devices based on metal oxides and new design strategies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Microstructural Analysis. Raman spectroscopy (Figure S1, Supporting Information) showed that the graphene was typically a few layers thick and survived the composite sintering process, with little structural change. Scanning electron microscopy of the graphene/ LSTO (G/LSTO) nanocomposites revealed that the graphene was dispersed at the edges of the ceramic grains without any obvious localized aggregation (Figure 1). Transmission electron microscopy showed that the LSTO grains were covered by a mixture of multi-layer graphene sheets (Figures 2a and b) and thinner graphene flakes which were stabilised by curling at their edges (Figure 2c). High resolution imaging of these sheets showed the characteristic hexagonal atomic symmetry of graphene (Figure 2d and e).


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Figure 1: SEM images of the fracture surface of 0.6 wt% G/LSTO nanocomposites (a) at low magnification, (b) at high magnification, (c) and (d) showing morphology of the graphene sheets. Electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) demonstrated that the LSTO grain size decreased significantly with increasing concentration of graphene (Fig 3). For the pure LSTO (Figure 3 (d)), the average grain size was 2.2 μm, with a largest grain size of ~10 μm, and no grains smaller than 1µm. However, upon the addition of 0.1 wt% graphene (Figure 3 (e)), the average grain size remained around a micron (1.2 μm), but over 53% of grains were nanosized ( 0.25 at room temperature to 750 oC. A prototype device achieved an open circuit potential of 600 mV with cold side at 18.5 oC and a temperature difference of 400 oC. This discovery highlights an alternative strategy to nanostructuring for developing high-performance, environmental friendly, low cost thermoelectric materials and extending their use to lower temperature applications such as automotive and low temperature generators.

METHODS Materials. The graphene was produced by exfoliating nanographite platelets (xGnP M-5) purchased from XG Sciences Ltd. All solvents were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, UK. Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, UK. The molecular weight of the CTAB is 364 g/mol. The aggregation number of the CTAB is 170; the micellar average molecular weight is 62,000. The oxide starting powders of strontium titanate (5 μm), strontium carbonate, titanium dioxide and lanthanum oxide were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, UK.


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Preparation of lanthanum strontium titanium oxide ceramic powder. Lanthanum strontium titanium oxide ceramics of composition La0.067Sr0.9TiO3 were produced by the following procedure. The strontium carbonate, titanium dioxide and lanthanum oxide powders were the precursors. An excess weight of the precursor powders were dried in a furnace at 950 °C for 4 hours to remove any adsorbed species. Appropriate amounts of strontium carbonate (72.2 g), titanium dioxide (43.4 g) and lanthanum oxide (5.9 g) were then weighed to yield 100g batches of La0.067Sr0.9TiO3, and mixed with 8mm zirconia balls and propan-2-ol in a 1:1:1 weight ratio to create a slurry. Each batch was vibratory milled for 24 hours. Subsequently, the slurry was dried at 85 °C in an oven to remove the propan-2-ol. The milled powders were transferred to an alumina crucible and calcined in a furnace for 4 hrs at 1100 °C, with heating/cooling rates of 180 °C hr-1. The calcined powders were milled again under the same conditions as stated above. The final powders were stored in sealed bottles until required.

Preparation of graphene sheets. The procedure for preparing graphene sheets followed a liquid exfoliation method developed by Lin et al.43. Typically, 100 mg of graphite nanoplatelets (xGnp M-5) were firstly sonicated in 5 ml mixture of phenol and methanol (ratio: 5:1) for 30 minutes. 10 mg CTAB was added and the resultant suspension sonicated for another 30 minutes. It was then left to rest for 2 days. Afterwards, the mixture was added to 100 ml mixture of water and methanol (ratio: 4:1), followed by stirring for 2 hours. Finally, the resultant graphite/graphene mixture was separated by centrifugation, and the unwashed exfoliated graphene dispersion stored at room temperature for further use.


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Preparation of lanthanum strontium titanium oxide/graphene nanocomposites. Preparation of 0.1 wt% graphene (G)/lanthanum strontium titanium oxide (LSTO) is demonstrated as an example. First, 10 ml of the exfoliated graphene dispersion which contained 10 mg of graphene (produced as described above) was sonicated for 0.5 hour. At the same time, 10 g of the calcined LSTO powder was added to 100 ml water, followed by 0.5 hour sonication. Subsequently, the graphene dispersion and the LSTO water dispersion were mixed together by stirring for 0.5 hour and then 0.5 hour sonication. The resultant mixture was then filtered and dried at 60 °C under vacuum for 8 hours. The dried powders were then milled in planetary mill at 10,000 rpm for 3 hours. The resulting powders were stored in sealed bottles.

For sintering, the powders were pressed into pellets of 10 mm and 20 mm diameter with thickness between 3 and 5 mm. The pellets were placed on a bed of 5 wt% xGnp/strontium titanate powder and sintered at 1427 °C, under an atmosphere of 95 % argon and 5 % hydrogen for 24 hours. The powder bed was used as an oxygen scavenger to prevent oxidation of graphene in the main composites.

Characterization. The density (ρ) of sintered products was determined by the Archimedes method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of sintered and polished LSTO and its nanocomposites with graphene were obtained by use of a Philips Automatic Powder Diffractometer (APD, copper


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anode at 50 kV and filament current 40 mA). The samples were scanned from 10 ° to 85 ° with a step size of 0.02 °, and a scan speed of 0.0025 °s-1.

The microstructures of LSTO/G nanocomposites were investigated by Scanning Electron Microscopy (Philips XL30 FEGSEM). The fracture surfaces were gold coated prior to use. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was undertaken using a FEI Tecnai G2 TEM (200 kV). Some of the samples were mechanically crushed, dispersed in acetone and then drops dried on a holey copper grid for direct TEM imaging. Alternatively the solid samples were ground then polished down by using 1 μm diamond paste followed by OPS colloidal silica (22-28 nm, pH 910). The grain sizes and compositions of the nanocomposites were determined by Electron BackScatter Diffraction (EBSD) using an FEI Quanta 650 FEGSEM on polished samples.

The electrical resistivity and Seebeck coefficients of LSTO and its nanocomposites with graphene were determined simultaneously (under a helium atmosphere) from room temperature to 750 °C, using a ULVAC-RIKO ZEM-3 system. Thermal diffusivity (D) was determined by the laser flash method using system designed in-house. The heat capacity (Cp) was measured using a TA Instruments DSC 2920 Calorimeter in modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) mode. Nitrogen was used as the purge gas (40 ml/min). The samples were heated up at a rate of 3 °C/min, with modulation amplitude of 1 °C and a period of 80 s. The thermal conductivity was obtained from the relationship κ = DCpρ.


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Prototype device fabrication. A 7 couple device was assembled using copper metallised ceramics as the support substrate and silver screen printing ink as the joining material. The Lanthanum Strontium Titanate with 0.6 wt% graphene (0.6 wt% G/LSTO) discs and Bismuth Strontium Cobalt Oxide (BSCO; produced under separate study) discs were cut using a diamond blade saw and ground to form pellets 2.5mm × 2.5mm with height of 3mm. After copper metallisation, the ceramics were polished to remove the copper oxide surface layer and cleaned with deionised water, isopropanol and acetone. The components were air dried. Silver ink was then applied to the copper contacts and the pellets connected to form a module; they were connected in series electrically, but in parallel thermally (Figure 8). For testing, the module was clamped in a test rig and subjected to a differential temperature.

Supporting Information. 1. Calculation of electronic thermal conductivity (κe) and Lattice thermal conductivity (κL), 2. Measured densities of LSTO and its nanocomposites with graphene, and 3. Raman spectra of graphene and 0.6 wt% graphene/LSTO nanocomposite . This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.”

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was supported by The University of Manchester Intellectual Properties (UMIP), Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, EP/I023879/1) and the European Union Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement n°604391 Graphene Flagship.


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Thermoelectric Power Generation from Lanthanum ... - ACS Publications

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