THIRTEENTH CENTURY BOOK on STONES MARY LOUISE FOSTERij ; Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts
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MONG the records of the past, tending to reveal the transmission of the culture of one civilization to another widely separated from it in geographical position and in intellectual development, is the manuscript known to scholars as "El Lapidarw de Alfonso el Sabio." This Alfonso, tenth of the name, EL LAPIDARIO DE ALFONSOEL SABIO, 1278 reigned in Aragon in the thirteenth cenOriginal in the Library of San Lorenza in Escorial. tury. Those were troublous days in Toledo, where Alfonso held court. AP" gressive neighbors and scheming relatives were con- is universally called Alfonso el Sabio, and for this work, stantly attacking his kingdom and slowly despoiling rather than as king of Spain, he is remembered today. The Alfonsine lapidary, or book of stones, gives him of the great territory left him by his father, Fernando 111, for, truth to tell, Alfonso had little heart us an insight into the actual knowledge which men had for warfare and the hurly-burly of the battlefield. He in those far-off days and the uses to which they put it. w e a scholar, a "lover of science and philosophy." He The manuscript, preserved in the Library of San Loenjoyed the quiet of his library where he threw himself renzo in Escorial, is a beautiful text, written on vellum whole-heatedly into the study of the ancient manu- in bold Spanish-Gothic and magnificently illuminated scripts brought there from all parts of the known world. with large initial letters, marginal scrolls, and syrnboliMany of these documents had been collected by Arch- cal tailpieces. It is a rare work, revealing delicate bishop Raimundo in the previous century. During technic in the use of line and color, and great imaginahis administration scholars had assembled there to tion in depicting scenes illustrative of the subject translate from Arabic into Latin those precious records matter of the text. There are four folios, containing descriptions of four hundred ninety-two stones. of the past. In the introduction, Jehudah Mosca, the Younger, Alfonso was not, however, interested solely for himself in these manuscripts. He wanted to share this and Garcia Pbrez, who, a t the bidding of Alfonso, were knowledge with his people and thus raise them out of translating the Arabic text into Spanish, give the history their ignorant, benighted condition. To accomplish of the coming of the manuscript to Toledo. They tell this, he ordered many of the Arabic manuscripts, the us that Abolays, a Toledan by residence, but a Chaldean Qur'an, the animal stories of Kalilah and Dimnah, and by descent, aware of the high esteem in which his a hook on stones, to be translated into Spanish, to the countrymen were held for their contribution to the end that his people might read for themselves in their science of the Greeks, desired that their achievement own language those famous writings. For the great be known in Spain. Therefore, he translated into good that he thus bestowed upon his countrymen, he Arabic this ancient Chaldean book of stones. With the 369
scientific theory of Aristotle that matter could be classified according as it was hot, cold, dry, or moist, was incorporated the theory that there was a certain inherent virtue imparted to each stone by the heavenly bodies. This doctrine the Syrians and Chaldeans had learned from the Neo-Platonists, who preached in Asia Minor in the third and fourth centuries. They taught that the stars and constellations controlled the properties of stones as well as gave signs of the future. I t is this aspect of the supernatural which differentiates this lapidary from others of the Middle Ages. It contains also much material which must have come overland by caravan routes from the Orient, for we find considerable familiarity with far-eastern lore and geography. Many of the names of stones and places are difficult to interpret due to misunderstandings and to radical differences in the various languages. In many instances, however, in addition to the Arabic name, the Latin equivalent, and sometimes even the Spanish name, are given. In the first folio, the signs of the zodiac form the basis of classification. The first is "Aries, which is the same as saying the sign of the sheep." It is connected with Mars and the rising of the sun. The stone which is in the first rank is called Magnitas in Chaldean and Arabic, Magnetes in Latin, and Aymante in Castillian. This stone is black in color and the best of them are found in the land of India in that part near the sea. It has natural virtue in itself, namely that of drawing, or attracting, iron t o itself with great force. This seems a great wonder t o those who do not know the nature of the property residing in this stone which is hot and dry, to attract iron, which is cold and dry. We say that one ought not t o wonder, or marvel a t this, because if one would stop to think of the words of the wise, one would find that all tbings attract in one of two ways, either by likeness, or by unlikeness. And the attractionwhich this stone exerts is according t o its strength. I n the land of India, the mountain, where they find this Magnetes, is near the sea where the ships pass close t o land, and such is its power that it draws the nails out of the ships. which then founder upon the rocks. And the marvel is that iron, which overcomes all other metals by its own strength, is itself overcome by the virtue in this stone and made to came against its will. Thus i t shows that attraction is more through force of unlikeness than through likeness. And so great is the virtue that the iron receives from this stone that i t draws t o itself other smaller hits of iron so that they attach themselves to it, as t o the stone. . . . And he who would like to know with what stars this stone has relation and from which i t receives its strength and virtue (intrinsic worth), let him know that they are those three in Pisces. And the property, which this stone has to attract iron, is due t o the virtue it receives from the stars.
Such is the story of magnetite, correct, as far as it goes, in the physical properties of the stone. Of the precious metals, mention is made of both gold and silver. The account of the former is presented from many aspects. Gold is of all metals the most nohle because the nobility of the Sun's virtue is most evident in it. It is the stone that men I w e and prize mast. It is heavier than any other stone, which is found in mines on the earth. I t does not exist in great pieces, but always in hits in the sands of sea, or river. It is found in manv . o.a t s of the world. but the best of all comes from the eastern part of Spain. I n color i t is yellow and when purified and humished, i t increases in yellowness, becoming more clear, hut not
transparent. And if i t is polished very highly. i t retlects like . What shall we say t o YOU? The nobleness and a mirror. the virtues of gold are such that it would be a long story t o tell. hut some are evident such as this: that when men see gold, they have happiness in their hearts and are considered richer than with any other thing which they could have; and, furthermore, of all the objects which they ennoble and enrich, they make mare from gold than from any other metal. Gold is used for many purposes in the a r t of medicine, of which, however, it does not belong to the purpose of this book t o speak.
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Silver, ranking twelve in the sign of Cancer, yields t o beating and casting like other metals, submitting t o hammering much more quickly than iron or copper, but not so well as gold. . It is lighter than gold and heavier than iron and copper. . Its color is white. The more i t is polished the more it shines, but not so i t becomes transparent. Its mines are in many places and it is well known t o many men, for i t is a nohle metal and of use in many things.
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Lead ranks thirteen in the sign of Cancer. It is a metal like silver and other well-known ores and is found in manv . olaces. . It is cold and moist, with an angular character which it luxs when h u t d , thus becoming cohl and dry. It is closely related t o silvrr, but from contamination hy earth and air, with which it is sometimes unevenly mixed, i t receives three defects: i t is easily soiled, it smells bad, and it rings between the teeth. Snch lead as this they call tin.
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(Mercwy, which) ranks twenty-sixth in the sign of Cancer, is mined in the land called Adracegen, in Semen, and in Spain. It is found free, or is set free from certain stones by heat. By nature i t is cold and moist and like silver before i t is contaminated. Because of its virtue, i t kills insects and the residue of the stone, which has been roasted, kills mice if it is mired with their food. The man who breathes its vapor, becomes paralytic and his limbs tremhle and he loses his sight and has many other illnesses. And from the place whence arises its vapor, snakes and other reptiles flee, or they die.
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[The pearl, or] Aliofar, is the eleventh in rank in the sign of Aries. By nature i t is hot and dry. Pearls arefonnd invery many large shells in many regions which are in the Great Sea around the world in Enderredor, i. e.. the litoral of Persia and India. They are formed in the following way: when the September winds come, the shells open and receive moisture which they absorb; then, with the drops of dew which have fallen into them, they close and go a t night dawn into the depths of the water. When day comes, they go forth and stop opposite the sun and open and take strength from the heat of it. And afterwards they descend t o the bottom. The same they do a t the setting of the sun. And when they become warm in the warm water, they are lightened, so t h a t the waves of the sea push them so strongly that they are thrown up on the shore. When the shells close, they shut in the pearls and when they open, they disgorge them. The pearls are round and beautiful and shining. The greatest value attaches t o those that are large and white and clear. Although this stone is white, it is not transparent, hecause the whiteness is of such thickness, but it is very shining as if it had been polished. Those that are of bad color, or form, have not received the air and heat of the sun as much as they should have. This stone is very nohle and much prized by men because of its form and beauty, which are not due t o the skill of mne. Of the nineteenth order of the sign of Aries is the stone called Annosa, which in Chaldean is the same as limestone in this language. It is from this stone that lime is made. I t is by nature hot and dry. It is found almost everywhere in the world, and is used in the great undertakings of man, because i t joins one stone very strongly t o another, and closes openings so that water
cannot escape; and finally men plaster pipes with it and put i t on other things which they do not wish water t o dissolve. Now, this stone encloses in itself heat so that i t drives the water out from ahove, thus releasing the heat which i t has shut within itself and which goes from i t like smoke. And this stone, when i t is mixed with azarnech (sulfur) and is placed upon the hair of any animal whatsoever, removes all the hair in a few hours. And if i t is allowed t o remain long on the skin, i t destroys the skin. Mixed with ail, it forms an unguent and is very healing.
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Algod6n in Spanish, called asbestos by Pliny, is "degree twenty in the sign of Taurus." It is white, tending toward thecalor of clear ashes. The stones, both large and small, are found in the Mountains of the Moon, there where the Nile is born, a t the bottom of caves so deep that he who descends into them, if he remain there long, either dies. or has paralysis. Those who are well informed concerning the collection of these stones, as soon as they reach the place where the stones are, take what they can and leave with them as soon as possible. Then others enter. I n this way only do they gather them. The stones are light in weight, but nevertheless strong and hard t o break. And when they are broken, material like cotton in texture and color is found inside. And the virtue of this cotton is such that i t is not consumed by fire. I t is spun and made into cloth like other cotton; and when i t is soiled, it is put into the fire and comes forth clean and bright as if it had been washed; and the longer i t is in the fire, the whiter and the more beautiful i t is. The physicians of that land burn this cotton and make a powder which they put into the eyes, because it dries the tears and aU moisture that is in them.
This stone was well known in all parts of the ancient world. Pliiy has left us a full account of asbestos as i t was known to him. He thought it was of vegetable origin although its Greek name meant "unquenchable" and in its behavior i t differed quite evidently from substances of true ve~etableorigin, similar in appearance. S i x centuries l a t k ~ a n 1sido;o reports that it was used on - the altar of Venus. where neither wind nor temoest could extinguish the flame. But perhaps the most interesting of all these accounts is that of Marco Polo' who gives in the story of his travels in Dsungaria his experiences with this stone. You must know that in the mountain is a substance from which Salamander is made. The real truth is that Salamander is no beast, as they allege in our part of the world, but is a substance found in the earth. Everybody must he aware that i t can be no animal's nature t o live in fire, seeing that every animal is composed of all four elements. Now, I, Marco Polo, had a Turkish acquaintance who related that he had lived three years in that region on behalf of the Great Khan, in order t o procure salamanders for him. He said that they got them by digging in the mountain till they found a certain vein. The substance of this vein was taken and crushed; when so treated, i t divided, as if i t were fibres of wool, which they set forth t o dry. When they were dry, these fibres were pounded in a copper mortar and then washed t o remove all earth and t o leave only the fibres, resembling fibres of wool. These were then woven into napkins.
A stone famous for its pharmaceutical value as well as for its supernatnral power from the most remote times even to the present is the Bezoar stone. Abolays assures us that Bezahar, of which there are several degrees, namely ten, eleven, twelve, and thirty-one in the "sign noble stone." - of Gemini, is a very. precious, . 1 POLO,Mnnco, "Romance of travel and exploration." John Murray, London, 1903, p. 212.
I t is found in many colors, some bright yellow, and others dark. The best ones came from the lands of Cin. India, and I n Greek i t is called Nericulequng, meaning "reHoracin. mover of poison." By nature i t is hot and moist, but i t is not verv strane in either of these oronerties: i t is soft and easily broien. 1;s virtue causes i t t o neutralize every poison, vegetable poisons as well s s those originating in animals, and bites from any poisonous animal whatsoever. The method of procedure is to dissolve the stone, or t o grindup half a drachm and give its solution t o the man who has drunk the poison. If one cover the wound, or poisdned bite with the powder of the stone before using any other remedy, the injured one recovers. . The philosop h m talk much of the nature of poisons. B r i d y , they say that poison does not kill so much from its property of cold, or hat, as from the great strength of its evil power. It goes directly t o the blwd of the heart or liver; it dissolves i t and makes the heart beat faster than i t should. For this reason the spirit goes so rapidly through the veins of the blood that it escapes from the body. And so, if one does not hasten with the remedy, the man dies. There are other stones similar in weight and color, but they have not the same virtue.
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These stones, well known during the Middle Ages under the name of Bezoar, were considered panacea for all diseases flesh was heir to. Avenzoar, physician t o the court of one of the Almohade rulers in the twelfth century, was the first t o introduce this remedy, probably from his familiarity with the writings of JSbu, one of which on poisons has been recently discovered by Meyerhof.Vhe stone, whose name signified "antidote" in Persian, was supposed to be derived from the eyes of deer poisoned by eating serpents. By the beginning of the XVII century, considerable information was collected by Caspar Bauhin3in his "De Lapidibus Bezaaris." He derives the word from the Hebrew, meaning "Master, or Overcomer of Poison." It was supposed to have magical powers as well as medicinal, and was worn as an amulet. Schroeder3 says the Bezoar stone of the East is found in a-
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Persian or East-Indian Beast, partly like a Deer, partly like a Goat, chiefly in the stomach and other cavities within, of an oval form, or round and hollow within (having chaff or hair, or the like within it), shining and smooth without, with folds like an onion, of a divers colour, commonly of a blackish green, or clearer green, or pale, or Ash-coloured, Honey-coloured, with no scent: of a different bigness and weight, they being less than Walnuts, sometimes bigger.
On the authority of Abdalanarkus it is reported that a magnificent palace a t C6rdova was bartered for one of these stones and Bauhin reports that one stone was sold for one hundred thirty gold ducats. I n 1577, Nicholas Manardus4 speaks of its use in Perd. By the end of the century, however, belief in the wonderful powers of the stone had begun to vanish. Nevertheless, it was not until-
. . . F o m o y , Vauquelin, and Berthollet examined some stones sent t o Napoleon Bonaparte by the Shah of Persia that we had anv authentic information reaarding its composition. Berthollet found that the stones consisted of agglomer&d woody fibre and were probably produced in the stomach of some animal in the same manner as the so-called hair-halls. Authentic intestinal
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M ~ ~ s n n o aMAX, , "The legacy of Islam." Oxford, 1931, p. 315. a KIRBY, W., I. Am. Pharm. Assoc., 12, 798 (1923). MANARDUS, N~CHOLAS, 1577.
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calculi from herbivorous animals consist of concentric layers of ammonium magnesium phosphate with a nucleus of plant residues. The chief constituents in different varieties are lithafellic, lithobillic, and ellagic acids."
Abboul Abbas7cannot be determined wholly from internal evidence. The close correspondence of much of the subject matter and the similarity of many phrases to the Latin manuscript in Liittich make it seem at least The persistence of such a belief through so long a probable that the two authors had access to the same period of time seems incredible to us, and so it came as text. Many lapidaries were written during the Middle a shock to me to read only two years ago that a native Ages. Almost all of them contain references to a simiMalay used this "most precious stone, more precious lar work by Aristotle, but his manuscript has not been than gold, to rub over the body of the sick man, because found up to the present time. I t is much to be hoped it absorbed all the bad humors, the rottenness of the that it may still be discovered in some of the yet unexsore, the acid of the liver."s plored treasures in Constantinople, or other storehouses These are a few translations from the text of Abolays, of the East. to whom is attributed, in the "Tabla" of the Alfonsine I wish to make acknowledgment to The American lapidary, the authorship of the first folio. Whether he was a "mvthical"%erson, or was identical with Council of Learned Societies for the award which has made -possible this study of The Alfonsine Lapidav. FAUCONNIER, HBNRI,"Malaisie." 1930. @ROSE, VALENTIN, Z . deut. Alterthum, 18, 321 (1875).
' NUNEMAKER, H., I. Philol. Quart., 8, 248 (1929).
