EDUCATION
U.S., Soviet Chemical Curriculums Differ Full-time chemistry major in U.S.S.R. obtains practical research experience early; formal graduate work often by-passed 149TH
ACS
NATIONAL
MEETING
Chemical Education
Never is the American penchant for placing East-West relations on a "who's bigger and better?" basis more pronounced than when comparing U.S. scientific achievements with those of the Soviet Union. A corollary of this comparison is the widespread numbers game concerning output of scientists and engineers in the Soviet Union vs. the U.S. (C&EN, Aug. 31,
1964, page 15). However, a direct comparison of the number of scientists and engineers trained in the two nations is only one measure (and a dubious one in some respects) of the differences in approaches to science at universities in the two countries. Curriculums, however, highlight the differences between Soviet and U.S. science training, as was pointed out by Dr. Bradley L. Winch of General Mills' central research laboratories in Minneapolis, Minn. Dr. Winch returned to the U.S. last fall after 10 months in Moscow at the Institute of Metallo-Organic Compounds, where
he did research as a participant in the 1963 National Academy of Sciences exchange program. The chemistry curriculum at Moscow State University, for instance, is a five-year program. During the first three years, a student takes mostly chemistry and related sciences and mathematics. All told, about three fourths of his work is in science and related courses. At most U.S. state universities, about half of a chemistry major's course load consists of science and related topics. After his third year, a full-time chemistry major is required to get
Chemistry Curriculum Takes Five Years The chemistry curriculum at Moscow State University involves a five-year pro gram. During a student's first three years, his schedule includes courses primarily in chemistry and related sciences and in mathematics; thus about three fourths (or more) of his work is in science and related courses. Along these lines, the chemistry program at Moscow State is comparable to technological schools in the U.S. (such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology) where there is a heavy load of science courses for science majors. At most U.S. state universities, about half of an undergraduate chemistry major's course load is in science and mathematics. The layout of the campuses at Moscow State further indicates that science students are not expected to bother too much with the humanities. Science students are situated on a campus apart from the humanities students; engineers are trained at still other locations, usually specialized schools. Science undergraduates, like nearly all full-time Soviet students, receive "scholarships." These amount to 27 rubles (1 ruble is officially equivalent to $1.11) per month the first year, increasing to 37 rubles a month during the final year. 56
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practical laboratory experience. He does this by spending a year with an established scientist, usually at one of the research institutes. During this period, a student gets paid from 70 to 75 rubles a month and is allowed to continue his course work in the evening at the university. Those who prefer to do all of their course work during evenings while working as technicians during the day also get about 75 rubles per month. As part of this plan, the students are allowed two months paid leave time from their jobs for more intensive study. The program of practical lab experience not only helps the students, it also helps the Soviet scientists, Dr. Winch says; having one or more technicians for routine laboratory work allows a scientist more time to think about the more intricate aspects of his research problem. In this regard, at least, a Soviet scientist is better off than his U.S. counterpart, he notes. This reliance upon technicians is also evident in engineering. The Soviet Union currently trains (or plans to train) three or four technicians for each engineer. Dr. Winch suggests the U.S. should take heed and provide industrial and university scientists with more technicians to allow more efficient use of the scientists' time. Thesis. The fifth university year for a Soviet chemistry major is de voted mainly to a thesis, although course work continues. During this time, a student becomes a member of a research group either at the university or at a research institute. Research institutes are run by the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Most of the basic research for industry is done at these institutes. Industry does its applied research in its own laboratories, but supports basic research programs at the institutes on a contract basis. The undergraduate students participate in all functions of the research group. Most rewarding for a budding chemist, perhaps, is publication of the result of his research efforts. Aside from this, the young science student has an opportunity to work in labs with well-known chemists. The Institute of Metallo-Organic Compounds, for instance, has facilities for about 400 scientists. The fairly new physical plant has two- and fourman laboratories located on both sides of long corridors, similar to many in-
dustrial research laboratories in the U.S. Beside the internationally known Alexander Nesmeyanov (whose official title is Academician), the institute's director, other famous chemists have active research groups at the institute. Some of them have dual roles. One has a small group at the institute in addition to his major responsibility as professor of chemistry at Moscow State University. Academician Nesmeyanov also holds a position at the university. Dr. Winch points out that this duality helps circumvent a sticky problem. There are often one-sided jurisdictional problems under the various exchange agreements. For instance, U.S. scientists participating under the NAS program must do their research at an institute administered by the Soviet Academy of Sciences. They are not allowed to work at a university. Exactly the opposite is true for participants under the Interuniversity Committee on Travel Grants agreement with the Soviet Ministry of Higher Education. These people may work only at Soviet institutions administered by the ministry. But where dual responsibilities exist, the exchangee may have access to both the research institute and the university (as in Dr. Winch's case). At the research institutes, some time is set aside each week for group seminars (about 10 to 20 people are in a group). At such seminars, a member may present information from recent literature of interest to the group, or he may bring the others up-to-date on the progress of his own research. The fifth-year undergraduate students (diplomniks) doing group research participate actively in these seminars. They thus have a chance to outline the work they are going to do for their diplomas and later to report their results. This seems to be good field training, Dr. Winch says, because the students have to defend their ideas at all times before their scientific superiors. Encouraged. The development of young chemists in the U.S.S.R. is encouraged in many ways. In addition to regularly scheduled seminars, special colloquiums, for instance, are often held. These colloquiums are organized by the more advanced students, and are intended to help the younger people. Symposiums for young chemists are also held at various
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Defense of a thesis is a more rigorous and formal trial in the U.S.S.R. than it usually is in the U.S. There are probably several reasons for this. For those students who do their research in institutes and have not been examined on their course work, this is the first time their scientific knowledge undergoes a test. Also, the ritual usually takes place in some place other than where the research was done. For instance, a man doing research on organometallic compounds in Gorky might come to Moscow for the defense of his thesis. Defending his work before a group of eminent strangers might be more exciting for an aspirant than is the ordeal for his U.S. colleague. In the U.S., a student usually appears before examiners who are at least known to him (if not friendly). An aspirant has a relatively large, critical audience at his ordeal. A
institutes. At such symposiums, each young scientist presents his own work to a highly critical audience. Also, the Soviet academy sponsors contests in which invited papers on original research are submitted by young scientists. Cash awards help stimulate contest participation. Dr. Winch believes that work experience and thesis preparation are valuable for young scientists. The approach helps those who plan to go into advanced work, as well as those who go directly into scientific jobs. Usual time required to get a diploma in chemistry is about five and a half years. At this time the diplomnik is about 23 or 24 years old and has training about midway between a bachelor's and master's degree holder in the U.S. After earning his diploma, a chemist normally is assigned (by the state) to a full-time job for two years; he earns about 100 rubles per month. Then he may have an opportunity to begin work for his advanced degree in chemistry. Only a few exceptional science students are allowed to go directly to graduate school. Graduate work may be taken either at a university or at one of the research institutes. If a graduate student does his work at a university, he will also take advanced courses. But no formal course work is required for those work-
notice that an aspirant will defend his dissertation must be put in the local newspaper for several weeks in ad vance. At the defense, which is open to the public, a candidate presents his work in much the same way it's done in the U.S. But then the procedures differ. Two scientific critics who have been previously assigned to thoroughly ana lyze the work speak either for or against the thesis. The Scientific Soviet (com prised of usually more than 20 top scientists from various universities and research institutes in the city) then direct questions and comments to the defender. After the audience gets its crack at the perspiring aspirant, he answers questions, refutes any criti cism, and summarizes his position. Although the audience may indicate (and usually does) whether it feels the work is worthy of a kandidat's degree, the final answer comes on a written vote by the Scientific Soviet. If the vote is favorable to the candidate, a celebration follows.
ing toward advanced degrees at the in stitutes. The graduate degree in the U.S.S.R. is not awarded only to those having formal graduate training. De grees can also be given to research people who pass examinations and de fend dissertations on work that they have done in research institutes. About half of the recipients of gradu ate degrees in the U.S.S.R. have had formal graduate training. Graduate schooling takes about A graduate student three years. (aspirant) is paid about 75 rubles per month the first year and slightly more each year following. When he is ready, he must defend a dissertation on his research. If successful, he receives a kandidat of chemical sciences degree, which is intermediate between the U.S. master's degree and the doctorate. A kandidat is ready to work in the chemical industry at about 200 rubles a month. Jobs are usually as signed by the state, but requests for specific assignments are honored if no serious need exists elsewhere. The fresh kandidat may choose to work at a research institute. Or he may, after completing more research, become a dozent at a university. In any case, after he has finished sufficient addi tional work, he may once again de fend a thesis, this time for the title of doctor of chemical sciences. There is no corresponding degree in the U.S.
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from a year earlier, according to the U.S. Office of Education. By contrast, 1963-64 had only a 1.6% increase over the preceding academic year. The enrollment total includes engineering freshmen at all 254 U.S. institutions of higher education granting degrees in engineering. Engineering enrollment increases are up at all levels. Undergraduate enrollments total 245,000, up 5%. Graduate enrollments set new records—for the master's degree, enrollment is up almost 10%. Doctorate enrollment is up 15%.
A new, four-year curriculum in fundamental sciences will be started this fall at Lehigh University (Bethlehem, Pa. ). The program will merge mathematics and earth, space, and life sciences and will provide a bachelor's degree in fundamental sciences. The curriculum was developed to prepare students for careers in interdisciplinary areas such as bioengineering, aerospace, material science, environmental engineering, and geophysics.
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C & E N A P R I L 12, 1965
The University of Pennsylvania will renovate and modernize the Towne building, which houses the schools of chemical, civil, and mechanical engineering. A National Science Foundation grant of almost $500,000 will be combined with $850,000 from the Ford Foundation to pay for the work.
