VISUAL AIDS IN CHEMICAL EDUCATIONL Visual aids in education have gained a resultant of forces of many added and powerful components during the past decade. In most respects, however, the principles involved by these aids are as old as man's first rude sketch. For the sake of clarity and agreement in the terminology of the field, it may be said that a visual aid includes "The representation of an object, a situation, or relationship in either two-dimensional line or three-dimensional form, which, when it accompanies language, tends to make the latter more interesting, intelligible, and impressive."' Thus it may be understood that the stock shelf in the chemistry laboratory becomes a more efficient visual aid when the cardboard cartons are replaced by glass bottles in so far as practical. The shelf is more efficient in the latter case, because the glass bottles make i t possible for the students to see and to associate the appearances of chemicals more readily. The difference between powdered and flaked graphite, then, is not likely to be overlooked. The shelf can and should do something more than to serve as a depository for items necessary to develop some other visual aid in connection with the performance of an experiment. In the same sense, the blackboard, chart, excursion, exhibit, globe, map, model, picture, and actual specimen of whatever kind, are to be thought of as visual aids. In no phase of the Committee's work is it the intention to minimize values inherently the property of the more common types of visual aids. With reference to the more common types, for example, i t is a singular thing that the average required elementary courses and texts in educational theory and practice give little consideration to the problem of obtaining maximum valse from textbook illustrations and the usual types of pictures available from other sources. At the same time, pictures traditionally have held an accepted place in the average textbook. What actually constitutes a picture of educational value?2 This is a question which the average teacher is little likely to be prepared to answer completely. The same is true for the question, How is it possible to obtain the maximnm value from the use of pictures? Because films, film- slide^,^ stereopticon slides and stereoscopic pictures as visual aids have been less widely used and are less understood than the more common types listed above, and because the number of problems associated with these less widely used forms offer somewhat formidable
'The first of a series of artides from the Committee of the Division of Chemical Education of the A. C. S. on Aids to Visual Instruction in Chemistry. Weber, Joseph J., "Is the Tern 'Visual Education' Scientific!" The Phi Delta Kappan, 11, 7&9, 83 (Oct., 1928). Doris, Anna V., "Visual Instruction in Public Schools," Ginn and Co., 1928, pp. 6,15 'Hollis, A. P.. "Motion Pictures for Instruction," Chapter VIII; "A Score Card for Judging Values of Informational Pictures," Century C o , 1926. Also called "still film" or "film strip." 828
VOL. 7,
NO. 4
VISUAL AIDS I N CHEMISTRY
829
appearance, the latter group is to be given a more extended consideration here. A problem, for example, in the realm of newer types of visual aids is found in the fact that each of the films used in the Eastman Research Project was prepared under the same direction and with the same extreme care from scenario development to photography and psychological adjustment4 Why was i t then that the total correct results for the film on the water supply for New York City were not closely comparable to the results for the related film on the purification of water for Chicago?= The highly developed research departments of leading advertising companies are mute evidence as to the importance of pictures, among other things, in the matter of developing to the highest state such psychological functions as attention, perception, conception, discrimination, and memory. Notwithstanding the fact that these problems are being, or can be solved,= the technical aspects and magnitude of the field as a whole are such that even the secondary school of average size could use to advantage a supervisor with training in the subject of visual aids.' Likewise, educational courses and departments for teacher training no longer can be thought of as rendering adequate service unless visual aids are taken into mnsideratioms A very casual glimpse a t the general developments centering around visual aids in the past few years is indicative of the consequence of the movement in the school of tomorrow. Approximately fifty cities in the United States are maintaining visual instruction departments.* In 1928, fifteen thousand educational institutions in the*'united States were using films for teaching purpose^.'^ During the academic year of 1927-1928, the American Museum of Natural History in New York City distributed more than 3300 reels of films in 122 schools, reaching through this service "innegan, T. E.. "An Experiment in the Development of Classroom Films," Tansactions of Society of Motion Piclurc Engineers, 112, 545-63 (1927). "The Story of Eastman Classroom Films." 18 pp., gratis from Eastman Teaching F i , Inc.. Rochester, New York, 1929. 6 Wood and Freeman, "Motion Pictures in the Classroom," Houghton, Mifflin and Ca., 1929; "Nation-Wide Experiment Grades Value of Films in Classroom Teaching" THISJOURNAL, 6, 1m-7 (Jan., 1929); Wood, Ben D., "What Is the Potential Value of the Teaching Film?' Nation's Schools, 3 , 5 4 4 0 (Mar., 1929). Enlow, E. R., "Statistically Speaking-A Flagrant Misinterpretation," Educ. Screen, 8, 228-9 (Oct., 1929). Griffith, Coleman R., Director of Laboratories of Research in Athletics, University of Illinois. Personal correspondence re utility in athletic instruction, Dec. 7, 1929. 7 Astell, Louis A,. "The Status and Trends of Visual Aids in Science," Educ. Screen.. 7., 1834 .(Qct... 1928). Hollis, A. P., o@. cit.. p. 209. News and Notes. Educ. Screen. 8, 75 (Mar., 1929) 'Oh'ews and Notes. Ibid., 7, 261 ( ~ e c . ,1928).
830
JOURNAI. OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
A p m , 1930
more than 1,123,700 pupils; an increase of more than 100 per cent over that of the previous year.I0." The New York City schools, in the last academic year gave visual instruction to 2,380,381 ~hildren.'~The Los Angeles school system, in the same year, had a motion picture circulation estimated a t more than 20,000 reels with an increase in circulation of visual aids other than films of more than 100 per cent over that of the preceding year.l8 In Ohio, high schools to he given either an "A" or "B" rating must have "provisions for visual education, including educational motion pictures a t least once a week; and other forms of visual instr~ction."'~ Recent major research projects are substantiating the wisdom of all these investments. The pioneer of exact scientific methods applied to the field is Doctor Weber.l6 Following him are such leaders as Freeman," D ~ d l e y , 'Crandall, ~ F i n n e g a ~ ;and ~ among the more recent is Lewin.18 Of the institutional projects, Yale University has conducted a searching experiment for the worth of historical slides and films. The production of the "Yale Chronicles of American Photoplays" for fidelity and other values will stand as a monument to the school and department from which they issued.lg The work of Harvard University in cooperation with Pathe, Inc., deserves more than passing note.20 Along with all of these projects are to he numbered the experiments conducted by city systems such as that of New Y ~ r k . ~From l the industrial world has come the Eastman Research Project, referred to ,above. This project has been characterized as the most extensive educational experiment ever undertaken. For it, all methods and results were develJped under direction of specialists 11 "Added Distribution for the Bureau of Mines Subjects," L?duc. S c r e a , 7, 174 (June, 1928). News and Notes, Ibid., 7, 233 (Oct., 1929). la McClusky, F. Dean, "Visual Education in the Los Angeles City Schools," Ibid.. 7, 207 (Oct., 1928). '"Ohio's Regulations Regarding Visual Instruction," Ibid., 8, 140 ( h y , 1929). Weber, Joseph J., "Comparative Effectiveness of Some Visual Aids in Seventh Grade Instruction," Ibid., 1, i31 (1922). Freeman, Frank N.. "Visual Education," Univ. of Chicago Press, 1924,392 pp. l7 Hollis, A. P., op. cit., p. 220. 18 Editor's Note and accompanying article; Lewin, William, "Teachers Hail the Talkies," Educ. Screen, 8, 29Fr6, 305, 312 (Dec., 1929). Kitson, Harry D., "Teaching by Talkies," Nation's Schools, 4, 4E-S (Oct., 1929). Knowlton, Daniel C., "Improving the Quality of Instruction in History with the Aid of the Photoplay," Historical Outlook, Part I, 20, 167-79 (April, 1929); Part 11, 20 (May, 1929). MeClnsky, F. Dean, "Experiments with Yale Historical Films," Edur. Screen, 7, 244, 246 (Oct., 1929). McClusky, F. Dean, "PathC-Harvard Films Released," Ibid., 8, 54 (Feb., 1929). 1' "The Educational Value of Motion Pictures," Am. Sch. Board J . , 79, 54 (July, (1929).
VOL. 7, N O . 4
VISUAL AIDS IN CHEMISTRY
231
of the highest order in educational "It is clear,'' as McClusky points out, "that visual materials have established their worth as educational factors in the school rooms of Ameri~a."~%d i t is equally clear that with the worth established in America little remains for the estahlishment of values and practice in the countries beyond. Obviously, with the increase in number of types of visual aids availahle, more judgment and information are needed to make efficient use of these aidsz3 Each type has its inherent virtues and faults. Problems in economics, in time, storage, flexibility in usage, and mechanical technic involved, are not all the issues to be mM in no uncertain terms before every type of visual aid is fitted into the educational scheme. For example, the laboratory exists in no small measure because i t is known to offer opportunities in the form of visual aids. Even the exact status of the laboratory in this educational scheme is not determined.24 In the development of a project on copper, one would not use a set of slides to show those steps involving inherent Emetic phenomena to elementary studentsz5 if excellent films, utilizing the animated diagram of such steps, were availahle. Nor would one he inclined, necessarily, to use either of these if the actual mining, milling, smelting, refining, or fabrication processes in question were easily accessible. Certainly one would not purchase a library of twelve reels on copper for use, except in colleges and the larger city systems, as long as i t is possible to obtain the same material on loan from the government or other reliable The problem has other angles. All aids of h a t e v e r kind, to have a maximum value, need to be subjected to such considerations as the pedagogically fundamental idea of student participation in the social events and consciousness of the individual's surroundings, including the classroom.2' To this must he added the sodological principle of imitation, as applied to the student and to the student's action, and also the psyMcClusky, F. Dean, Editorial, Educ. Screen, 8 , 5 4 (Feh., 1929). Weher, Joseph J., "A Suggested Methodology for the Use of Informational Motion Pictures," I M . , 7, %lo, 32 (Mar., 1928): Freeman, Frank N., "Same Principles an the Use of Visual Methods in Higher Education," Ibid., 8, 100-1 (Apr., 1929); 8, 13Fr6 (May, 1929). 14 Downing, Elliot R., "Teaching Science in the Schools," Univ. of Chicago Press, 1925, pp. 11142. Croxton, W. C., "Shall Lahoratoly Work in the Public School Be Curtailed?" Sck. Sci. Math., 29, 79-83 (Jan., 1929). Downing, Elliot R.. "A Criticism," Ibid., 29, 411-3 (Apr., 1929). Croxton, W. C., "A l&ly," Ibid., 29, 73&3 (Oct., 1929). "Hollis, A. P., op cit., pp. 8 2 4 . Department of Commerce. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh Experiment Station, Pittsburgh, Pa. Film numbers 12640, inclusive. 2' Dewey, John, "My Pedagogic Creed," J. Fall. Educ. Assoc., 18, 291 (Dec., 1929). 1g
"
%2
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
APRIL,1930
chologically valuable experience of self-expres~ion.~~ These aids need to be subjected to a classification on the basis of age and group levels. A film of maximum value to classes in college chemistry is not likely to be of maximum value to chemistry students in secondary schools. When chemistry comes to be taught in the elementary schools of this country as a general thing, still pictures are likely to he the media where the newer types of visual aids are used. Films, slides, and film-slides on chemical processes are now available in considerable quantities. Some of this material is satisfactory for classroom purposes and some of i t is suited to auditorium work. More desirable materials in greater quantities would be made available if the various chemical industries were acquainted with the standards required by educators and had opportunities to cooperate with educational organizations in the matter of producing these aids. What more valuable contribution for the advancement of chemistry can be rendered, for example, than theses in the form of films or slide sets prepared by candidates for advanced degrees. In the preparation of this material is implied the selection of subjects essential to chemistry courses with emphasis on the subjects not conveniently or economically duplicated in the average laboratory. Further, it is implied that an adequate analysis of the educational worth of the individual films or slide sets be prepared, that the research findings for each project be set forth, that reference sheets be compiled, and that suitable lesson plans involving student participation and other principles be carefully developed for the group intended. In other words, the project should be developed to the point of being a practical working unir of established value for the course in which i t is intended to be used. What such workers as Lewin have done in these respects others undoubtedly will take the opportunity to do, the general scope of the Eastman Teaching Films, Inc., and other similar organizations notwithstanding. The element, illinium, will serve for a specific example illustrating more clearly the importance of visual aids in this connection. A film with incorporated lecture by Professor B. S . Hopkins, showing him and his assistants" using the original apparatus and demonstrating the principles involved, with some of the original product, would serve many educational purposes. Here would be the geographical scenes involving monazite and other
" Astell, Louis A., "How State Academies May Encourage Scientific Endeavor among High-School Students." Read before the Conference of State Academies of Science at Des Moines, Iowa, December 27, 1929. Harris, Hopkins, and Yntema, J. Am. Ckem. Soc., 48, 1585 (1926); Ibid., 48, 1594 (1926); Nature, 117, 792 (1926): World's Work, 53, 700 (Oct.. 1926); Science. 63, 575 (1926); News Ed., Ind., Eng. Chcm., p . 5, March 20, 1926. Quill, Lawrence L.,"Illinium-Element Number 61," THISJ OURNAL, 5, 561-8 (May, 1928). Ball and Harris, "Extraction of Commercial Rare Earth Residue with a View to the Concentration of Illinium." J. Am. Chenz. Soc.. 51, 2107-12 (July, 1929).
VOL.7, NO. 4
VISUAL AIDS I N CHEMISTRY
833
contributing sources of the element. Here would be the development of the scientific method and spi~it,~O both of which are more important than the facts, since the method and spirit may be the means whereby other discoveries are made. This living historical document, when available for college chemistry classes making a study of the rare earths, will serve as a compelling inspiration for scientific achievement. To such a record the lecturer in charge may make his personal contributions. Such things are being done in the general field of ~cience.~' Add to this vision the forecast of the future motion picture as it is being developed. With lenses and films of vastly increased speed, with threedimensional screening, and with natural full col0r,3~we are to have an instrument for the advancement of all education as well as of all science; an instmment which extends materially our present general conception of possibilities. This article has dealt more fully with the motion picture film than with other phases of visual education materials. In the subsequent articles issuing under the name of this Committee, it is intended to lay a foundation for constructive work in all phases of visual aids as applied to chemistry whether for juvenile or adult attention, whether for assembly or classroom. Through the careful study of materials a t hand, the American Chemical Society has accepted the opportunity of maintaining chemistry as not only the best organized, but the best supplemented subject of science. 30
Wiggam, A.
E., "The
Religion of thc Scientist," World's Work, 50, 397 (Aug.,
1925). a' "Chemistry t o Be Taught by Motion Pictures," The Motion Pirture, 5, No. 6, 7. Published hy Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, Inc., 469 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C. "Development of Medical Films Praised." &d., 4 No. 12, 5 (Dec., 1928). Editorial, Ibid., 5, No. 6, 8 (1929).
Studies Effect of Air on Metals. Lead, tin, and stainless steel offer the most resistance to corrosion when exposed for years to the air, Dr. J. Newton Friend, head of the chemistry department a t the Birmingham Technical College, in England, has found in a series of researches upon which he reported a t the recent meeting of the Institute of Metals held a t Dlisseldorf, Germany. A number of cylindrical bars of different metals, each two feet long and an inch in diameter, were exposed on a Birmingham roof for seven years. Various kinds of brass were most corroded, though they passed the test much better than specimens of wrought iron and carbon steels. Aluminum resisted corrosion nearly as well as the lead and tin, t h q u ~ honear a body of salt water this would pot have heen the casr.-Science ,Servk~
