Muoh 1954
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
No. 1 caal,1949 No. 2 Cement. 1949 No. 6 Molding @and (Naturally Bonded) 1949 No. 6 Molding @and (8ynth. Fdry. Sands) 1960 No. 6 hlstursl cfi4 1949 No. 7 Petmlsum. 1949 , No. 9 Chemical Limeatone, 1961 No. 10 Sulphur, 1861 No. 12 Lime Industry. 1961 No. 13 Gmurn. 1962 No. 16 lndustriSl8snds and Sendstones. 1953 (12) Ohio De*. Ioduatrial R e l a t i o ~ Columbus, . Ohio. Annual Cos1 Remrt m d Nonmstsllia Mineral Remrt with Direotories of
. *
(15) U.8.Bur.Mi&, “Minerela Yearbook 19M1.”
(18) U. 8. Bur. Mines snd U. 8. Geol. Survey. “Mineral Position of the United States,” Appendix to Investigation of National Resouroas,Hearing# before a subcommittee of the
C o m m i t t e e on Publio
h d s , u. 8. 8enste. 80th Congress. 1st 8ecdion. May 16.16. and 20. 1947. (17) Wright, A. J., “Economio Geography of Ohio.” Division of Geologioal S m e y . O b .Bull. 50.186a. R W ~ V E Df ~ r
~ u g v a ai. t
~AST
.. ..
ENTRAL
i
1968.
Water Resources UNNBRSITI
A. M. BUSWELL or u u i o m l u l ~m o m STAR WATER E,-
-A,
ILL.
W. J. ROBERTS ILUNOIS STAR W A R SUBVII. uRBIu(h U L
Tha Eut North C.ntrJ. Statu haw u p u i o n c o d indusM.l ewhioh hu m r l t d in oartrdng d d o p u l -t.r ~ p p inh mm. UU.. Than statu haw a comh i n d ht-d of 2S billion ON pa &y of nuku
Thirdly, of the total precipitation what proportion is returned to the atmosphere aa vapor? Fourthly, of this precipitatioq what roportion gets into
dghth tlu rtknrtd ~ t i ~ withdrawal d billion gallons of ground .R* pa &y. Nu19 O M M t p 6 f t h th. m t d hthdmd YY in th.unitd statu. Tha ODcUmTLc. of &urd ground r a t . r i s a h o m by map.. and spmci6c daelopnunt. tluoughout th. area am dirurd Tlu prmult stat. of inwntmy of -tu msourcu is outlird. th.inrd.guacy of p n v n t v a k r information im indiutd, md th.u v u w h u u impronmont is n u d d in collection of hdc water -uhu data a m ~(l(lrt.d.
0-
w a t r or OM
UI.
Th.y
pump 0 . 0 1.23
-
.
0
1% water resources are the basis of existence, for without them there would be no lXe-plant, animal, or industrial. The history of water development in an ancient an the history of man, and the availability of water has been a prime factor in the riae of civilizations and the loration of large centera of pop& tiOL Industry. which in the paet has taken whatever water it required, now is forced to inventory ita m u r e e and use it care fully. The time has come, eepecidy in the field of industrial chemistry, when quality and quantity requiremenin for water place a hi# priority on that m i m e . Elice the growth of the chemical industry has been especially rapid in the East North Centrd S t a h , let un look at the water mmurcen of that part of the country. M d w k (‘7) suggeete that the water mmu1ce8 of an area may best be determined by answering the following questions:
Let 2 repwent any given geographical d a c e or area for which this dormation is sought. Firsf what in the total annual avarap precipitation falling upon m a 27 b n d l y , of the total average a ~ u a precipitation l what propo.hion ta into dream channels where it can be measured and uwiaei $y man?
underground channels and mrvom and w t a t becomes of it?
PIWSIOORllpm OF EAST NORTH CENTRAL STAW
The five states comprising this seotion cover a total area of nearly 250,OOO square miles or a little over 8% of the area of continental United States. The northernmost state, Michigan, consiata of two peninsub separated by a strait. The Upper Peninsula in bounded by Lakes Superior, Huron, and Michigan and by White Fish Bay and St. Mary‘s River which separate the peninsula from Ontario. Thin northern part is relatively rugged and mountainous with tittle wear by emsion In contrast the southern peninsuls is a portion of the younger marine sediments whose layers contain oil and coal an well as salt and gypsum. Thin area, only slightly elevated above the lakes, has a gently undulating d a c e , with low dlands common to many parta of it. A large plateau of conaiderable dimension is situated in the northern part of the Lower Penineula, but the northwestem part of the Upper Peninsula is rugged with hilla and mountains. The state in drained by many amdl streams of clear water. I n the w e s b part of the Lower Peninsula are the following rivers: Muakegon, Grand, St. Joseph, Manietee, and Ralamssw. Several glacial lakes dot the d a c e of the lower peninsula. .The climate of the Upper Peninsula varies from extremely cold in winter to warm or mild summers. Prevailing winda in this area am from the northwest. The Lower Peninsula is intluenced greatly by Lake Michigan, and the isotherms have a W e r a l aouthwesbnortheast slant along the enatem half of the Lower Peninsula. July is the hottent month and February the coldest month. Precipitation averages 31 inches annually and is evenly distributed throughout the area. About one half of this falls be tween May and October. Wisconsin, the next northernmost state in this group, is bounded by Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan; on
488
INDUSTRIAL .AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 46, No. 3
distributed over the state and averages 31 inches annually. Approximately one half of this occurs duiing Llay, June. July, and August. The state gets plenty of snow averaging from 45 inches in the southern part to as much as 53 inches in the northern part. The southern part of this general arm is composed of the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio which topographically are similar, for over the greater part of their surfaces they have undulating prairie land. Ohio is nearly square in shape. It is on the border between the Praiiie Plains and the Allegheny plateau. Its underlying rork structures are relatively horizontal, but streams have dissected valleys that were later filled with glacial drift to form n h a t are extremely level till plains of northwestern Ohio. There is a viaterehed divide extending from Trumbull County across the state to Drake County near the middle of the western border. JT7ater'falling north of this line flows to Lake Erie and south of it to the Ohio River. The more important rivers are the Cuyahoga that enters Lake Erie a t Cleveland; the Black, Vermilion, and Huron rivers in the middle of the state; Figure 1 . Water Resources of East North Central States ( 7 7 ) and the Maumee and Sandusky rivers that drain the till plains of northwestern Water courses in which ground water can be replenished by perennial streams Ohio. The southern part of the state is drained by the Great Miami and Little Buried valleys not occupied by perennial streams Miami rivers and their tributaries. Thra Unconsolidated and semiconsolidated aquifers central and southern areas are also drained by the Scioto River and its tribConsolidated rock aquifers utaries. I n the eastern part of thr state the hluskingum River and its tribBoth unconsolidated and consolidated rock aquifers utaries drain one fifth the area of the state. The Ohio River flons along the Not known t o be underlain by aquifers t h a t will yield a s m u c h a s 50 gallons per minute to wells southern border of the state and the northern boundary is Lake Erie. There are several small lakes along the watershed divide near Akron and Canton. But except for the Lake the east by Lake Michigan, to the south by Illinois, and to the Erie coast line the state has only 100 square miles of water surfacr. west by Iowa and Minnesota. The Mississippi and Saint Croix The average temperature of the state varies from 49" F. in the rivers form the longest part of the western boundary of the state. north to 53" F. in the south. There are great extremes in temNost of the area is gently rolling surface interrupted occasionally perature throughout the year except where the influence of Lake by sharp ridges. The watershed divides are shallow, with Lake Erie is noticeable. Average rainfall varies from 30.8 inches in the Superior getting the smallest amount of drainage. The Fox River north to 42.1 inches in the south per year. Both Indiana and Ohio is the largest river in the state that empties into Lake Michigan. have sand hills in the northern part and a chain of rocky hills or It rises in the south central part and flows northerly and easterly "knobs" extending to heights of 500 feet above the surrounding by a somewhat roundabout route through Lake Winnebago and land in the southern counties along the Ohio River. Indiana in thence into Green Bay, The hIenominee and Oconto as \$-ellas contrast has many glacial lakes but the largest streams flow to some other small rivers flow into Green Bay. Farther southward the southwest, draining into the Ohio and Wabash systems. The the Sheboygan and Milwaukee rivers empty directly into Lake Wabash River, which is 500 miles in length, has its source in Michigan. By far the largest area drains to Lake Michigan. The western Ohio and flows northvestward, then southwestward and Wisconsin River rises on the upper Michigan border, then flow south across Indiana. Its main tributaries are the White, Salssouthward and westward for a distance of 600 miles across the monie, Mississinera, Wild Cat, and Tippecanoe. The White state to join the Mississippi River a t Prairie du Chien. The' River is the most important and is second to the Wabash in size southern part of the state is drained by the Rock River, the Fox of drainage area. Other portions of Indiana are drained by the River (of Illinois), and Des Plaines River. The state has thouKankakee River which is a tributary of the Illinois River and the sands of lakes, including its largest, Lake Winnebago, which has a St. Joseph, which flows into Lake Michigan. -4second river also length of 30 miles and a maximum width of 10 miles. On its banks called the St. Joseph has its confluence with the Blaumee River are located several important manufacturing cities. Except for and both flow into Lake Erie. The White River drains the souththe driftless area in the southnFestern corner of the state. marshes west part of the state. are found practically everywhere throughout the area. The temperature varies from 25' F. on the average through The state is subject to long severe winters with warm summers December and January to 79' F. through July and August. Durin the central and southern sections. The rainfall is uniformly
q#&pQ
March lgS4
INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
ing severe wintars the temperatures in the northern part of
Indiana reach -25' F. The average annual rainfall varies from 46 inches in the southern part of the state to 35 inches in the northern part. Nearly all of Illinois is in the Great Prairie region. The southern six counties touch the Coaetel Plain sediments at their northward extenion along the Miardasippi River. The state bas over 500 streams that are grouped into two river systema. Three quarters of the state's runoff is received by the Mississippi River while the Ulinois and Wabash-Ohio system Eceives the other one quarter. Within the state the most important is the Illinois River which is formed by the junction of the Kankakee and Dea Plaines rivers in the northwest part of Grundy County. The Illinois River has a length of over 400 miles c-g the &te from north central to the western part and draining nearly 25,000 square miles, or roughly one half the state's area At points the river broadens out to form wide lakes such 88 Lake Peoria. I n the muthern part of the state, the moat important river is the Kdaskia. This river is noted for its great variation in volume. In the northern part of 'the state the Rock River is an important watercourse emptying into the Mieaieaippi. In the enst and southern part of the state the Embarraea, Little Wabaah, Saline, and Cache rivers are important tributaries of the Wabaah and Ohio rivers. The Chicago River which naturally Eowed into Lake Michigan had its direction reversed in 1900 and now flows ii~to the Illino+ River. The soil of I h o i s is known for ita remarkable fertility. The drift depoeita are overlain by a dark-colored loam. Large portions of the subsoil are composed of mottled clay. The extranee of temperature are perhaps the moat nignilicant climatic factor within the state. The mean average temperature varies from 47' F. at Wmebago in the northern part of the state to 52' F. at Springfield in the central part of the state and 58" F. at Cairo in the southern extremity. The range appears to be greater in the northern part of the state than in the south. Rainfall varies from 43 inches annually in the south to 36 inches in the central part and 34 inches in the northern part of the State.
Within the five-state area are 122 industrial communities that daily pump over 2.5 billion gallons of drinking water through their distribution ~ p t e m a One half of the systems rely on ground -water, hut 90% of the capacity is provided from surface sources, ehidy the Great Lakes. Figwe 1 shows the water resources of the area (If). The p a t terns r e p m n t arean underlain by aquifers capable of yielding more than 50 gallons per minute to individual w e b of water containingnot more than 2ooo p.p.m. of dissolved solids. The legend includes amw where more highly minerslized water is actually used.
GROUND WATER REsouRcEB The region is favorably situated as far as underground water
is concerned. Most of the ares is underlain by thick deposita of sedimentary rocks, m d of which IUB wate~hearing. The ares prior to the glacial period was a mature region topographically similartocentralKentucky or perhaps Tennessee, intempted by the h& of the Great Lakes. Them lakes were then long stream Vaueys belongine to w d d e v d o p e d systems fed by a network of bihutariea. While the lakes t h d v e s m c h e d their present condition tbongh a combination of glacial erosion, damming by glacial deposits and tilting of the earth's crust, the surrounding amw now wear a mantle of unconsolidated materials left by the retreatingioemasses. Michigan, In the western Upper Peninsula of Michigan water is obtained W y from wells penetrating the glacial drift. Along the eaatem Upper Peninsula and the northern and eastern Lower Peninsula water is found m d y in drift deposits with
an area in central Lower Peninsula where both drift and rock
489
Resources
weUs prevail. Typical of this l a t h region is Lansing, whew 25,000,000 gallons per day are pumped from eandatanc aquifers. Pumpsge has increased 50% in the 5 years since 1945, and the demand for more water continues. Lansing may eventually have to develop additional supplies from the water c o w of the Red W r and Grand rivers. In the Detroit area water is obtained from three sourcea: Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River, their tributary s t r e w and inland lakes. and nround water l l L ) . Detroit used 3 hillion gallons of water-per day from Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River in 1950 (2). In that year 43,000,000 gallons of ground water were also pumped. Ground water in this area is generally hard, being principally a calcium and magnesium bicarbonate water, and contains varying amounts of iron and dfate. It often contains hydrogen sulfide and methane gas. Ground water in the Detroit area occurs in the glacial drift under both water table and artesian conditions. In some areaa along the Detroit and Huron rivers and the River Rouge where the streams are freely connected with an aquifer, i t is often gossible to induce in6ltration from the river by pumping from adjacent w e b tapping the aquifer. This type of well development bas large potentialities in certain parts of the Detroit m a . At the Willow Run bomber plant w e b of this character have developed yields as high as 4ooo gfdons per minute. Wella drilled into the bedrock formations U E ~ yield Y water that is too highly mineralized for most u~e8. &me highly mineralized water has been used for cooling purposes and air conditioning. This water, which has a temperatme that a w a g e ~ about 53' F., is pnmped from wells over 2ooo feet deep. Wisconsin. &uth central Wisconsin has a large area of sedimentary aquifers. The drift thins out along the eastern border of the state and is practically hckiog in the d r i f t l e s ~ m of southwestern Wisconsin. The industrial area is in the southern half of the state. Madison, in the central part, bas a municipal water works that pumps an average of 12,000,000 gaUons per day from sandstone wells approximately 800 feet deep. The original w e b were ceotrally located and from 1882 to 1922 artmian preasure in the well area dropped about 55 feet. In late^ YWE the newer city w e b were spaced approximately one mile apart and there has been no appreciable lowering of artesian p m u r e in the laet 3Oyetrrs (8). I n the induatrisl area to the northeast, decline of piezometric pressurr, in the rock aquifers has been considerable. The nonpumping level in one Fond du Lac well had an average decline of 5 feet annually for the period 1 9 M . There has been a l o w e ing of piesometric pressure in the artesian aquifers of 200 feet since 1800. The average daily pumpage in the Green Bay aresis 10,000,000 gallons. In this area some w e b once flowed by srtesian pressure but are now being pumped. Pumping levels now are about 300 feet below the d a c e . In both these cities pumpage is from wells within city limits. If the wells were distributed over a wider m a it is probable that they would upp ply the same quantity of water with higher piezometric pressures. Unleas hydrologic studies are forthcoming to show that the sandstone aquifers can eatisfy the eventual needs of them communities, it may be neces w y to instell pipelines from Lake Michigan or develop new ground water fields. Milwaukee and surrounding area waa reported to he pumping 482,000,ooO gallons per day in 1950 (9). Most of this came from Lake Michigan but 39,000,000 gaUons per day originated in lime-
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
490
stone and sandstone wells. The principal ground water producing formations in the Ulwaukee area are the sands and gravels deposited by glacial action, the Niagara dolomite, and sandstones. The sands and gravels have been largely undeveloped. The Niagaran wells vary in yield from a few gallons to 600 gallons per minute, and sandstones yielded 23,000,000 gallons per day in 1950,
260 280 0 *
i
300
0
* 320 *
t 340 360
Figure 2.
Deep Well Water Level Joliet, Ill. (11)
Ohio. Except for former valleys now filled with glacial gravels and one narrow rock aquifer belt extending from south central Ohio northeastward into northwestern Pennsylvania, the eastern one half of the state is not generally underlain by productive aquifers. The western half of the state has rock aquifers, but the main sources of ground mater are the alluvial valleys that are constantly being recharged from surface streams. These radiate northward through central Ohio from the Ohio River which is the southern border of the state. A good example of how one industrial area in Ohio overcomes its mater problem is at Canton, % hich pumps 67,000,000 galloris per day from wells (13). These wells penetrate ground water reservoirs in buried valleys, many of which have no outstanding surface drainage pattern a t present. These valleys are relatively small. Seven years ago the city turned to gravel etrata on the small west branch of Ninishillen Creek. These strata do not have great storage capacity but are regularly recharged from the creek. Separated from this aquifer by a clay layer is a deeper sand stratum with high storage capacity but little recharge. The city has built recharge wells that permit 18,000,000 gallons per day of water from the upper stratum to flom into the lower aquifer. With this arrangement approximately 10,000,000 gallons per dag may eventually be pumped from the deeper aquifer, although only about one half that is now pumped. Indiana. Indiana has limited water in drift deposits in the northern part and rock aquifers underlying a large part of the eastern half of the stat?. Otherwise the main producing wells are located alone buried valleys or in the alluvial valleg-e. South Bend, near the northern border of the state, obtains its ground n-ater from Intake unconsolidated deposits (6). This city now pumps over 30,000,000 gallons per day, -4bout half of this amount is pumped by private users and the other half by the city municipal system, which has been in operation since 1886. Prior to 1915 there were no major changes in well water levels. Since that year there has been a falling in piezometric head of approximately 0.5 foot per year. Most of this water has been supplied by surface recharge, and it is estimated that only about 10 to 15% of the water removed during the last half century has been taken from storage. Surface drainage in this area has been toward the St. Joseph Y
Vol. 46, No. 3
River. In wells along the river and in the doq*ntonw business district pumping levels are now beloa the normal river level, and it is possible that there is flow from the river to the aquifer, In the eastern part of the city where there is little pumpage it is estimated that ground water is being discharged to the river at an estimated rate of 16,000,000 gallons per day. One significant fact influencing the rate of infiltration is a new dam on the St Joseph River at South Bend. I t is poePihk that silting behind the dam will reduce the infiltration rate. Illinois. Ground water is well distiibutcd in the upper two thirds of Illinois. The deep sandstones in the northern one third of the state provide cool (60' to 68" F.) water for industry in the Chicago region, m-hich includes Joliet and the Fox River Valle) . The Rockford area in north central Illinois obtains its water from both rock and glacial drift aquifers (9). The industrial wells of Rock Island and Moline pump water from the deep sandstones, and Peoria obtains ground water from drift formations. In the East St. Louis area industry pumps its w t e r from wells in an area of the Mississippi alluvium called thc American Bottom. These are the main industrial areas of the state. There air many minor industrial locations scattered through the northern half of the state that use ground water. In the southern part, there are no significant drift aquifers; however, there are sonic water-bearing consolidated sediments arid alluvial deposits. In the Chicago area there are 64 esta1)lishments that pump slightly under 85,000,000 gallons per day ( 1 ) . Soliet has seven wells that yield 12,000,000gallons per day, and in the Fox \-alley there are 29 installations that use 15,000.000 gallons per day of ground water, The Rock Island area has 40 wells that vicld 9,000,000 gallons per day. Rockford has over 50 wrlls producing 25,500,000 gallons per day (9). East St. Louis is reported to be taking approximately 105,000,000 gallons per day from the American Bottom and in the Peoria region a total of 85,000.000 gallons per day is extracted at present. Since 1942 the Illinois State Water Survey has been conducting a ground water investigation in the Chicago region. Water levels in that area are now obtained from over 125 wells. There are three principal types of wells in this tenitory: 1. The wells in the drift formation consisting of dug, driven, or drilled farm and residence wells that are of low productivity. 2. Rock wells drilled in the upper limcstone formations viheic there is little drift. (Thepe are used by tarms, residences, and industrial or municipal supplies. Some of these welle yield more than 500 gallons per minute. Hoivcvcr the capacity cannot be predicted before drilling and occasionally the wells furnish water of poor sanitary quality.) 3. The deep sandstone aquifers which are generally of high capacity.
These are the main sources of water for industrial and suburban uses in the Chicago area. These wells have a high initial cost hut are dependable both from a qualitv and quantity standpoint Control Tower I
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Pit Waste
b h c h 1954
~
I
*
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING
Water levels in the Chicago area have been declining regularly. The first deep aandstone wells drilled in the Chicago area in 1864 Bowed with a pressure of 80 feet at the surface. By 1900 there ma a little arteeiss flow at the surface from th0en deep wells, and at the pqmt time the nonpumping levels in the sandstone wells are 300 to 450 feet below ground level. Since 1900 this makes the average lowering of ground water levels in the Chicago area 6 feat per year. In the Joliet ares ground water haa receded a t a more rapid rate than anywhere else in Illinois. One well in that city shown a &on of 100 feet in the last 9 years. Figure 2 shows water level in the Des Phinee Street deep sandstone well located at Joliet, Ill. From 1942 to 1952 there wrw a cmtinuous decline in pieeometaic pressure at thia well. I n June of 1951 the city sterted pumping from new q W o w wells developed in a glacial d e y northeast of town. Reduced withd r a d from the m d a t o n e aquifer is retlected on the graph in a rise in water level at the Des Plaince Skeet well. In the eaet central part of Illinois,the Champaign-Urbana area faced a critical water shortage in 1944-45. Up to that time the area had depended upon 47 wells averaging 200 feet in depth and all located in a relatively amall area in the northern part of the community. The shortage became critical when deereaaing yields were noted from d the wells and the demand increased along with the increasing population. Four new wells were developed in an area 3 miles west of Caampaign and aince that h e , the main city mpply bas come from t h w wells. A water level recorder in one of the old a& that showed a wnniatent decline in water h e l a through 1946, in now showing a rice as the cone of depression becomes recharged. In 1940, the Peoria Chamber of C o r n m m decided to do something about the decline of water levels in municipal and industrial wells. At that time Peoria pumped about 85,000,000gallons per day from wells alow a 15mile reach of the Illinois River waterc o r n between Peoria and Pe&, Ill. Of this amount 76,000,000 gallons per day was for induetrial and commercial we. Water is pumped from gravel deposits avemging 100 feet in tbicknese. It ma computed in 1945 that water levels wwe meding at a rate equivalent to an overpumpge of 7,000,000 gallons per day. Since then pumpge has been reduced by conservation m w m , and water le& in recent years have declined leas than 1 foot per year. It is estimated that only a d fraction of the water pumped from wells is replaced by in6ltration of Illinois River water. If a well were drilled in the middle of the river it would have a nonpumping w ~ t e level r 15 feet M o w the bottom of the river, provided the well ma properly sealed. The ILliwis State Water Survey is presently experimenting with recharging the ground water reservoir by piping river water into a filter bed and thence into the depleted aquifex (10). This experimental pilot infiltrationpit baa been in operation two wintem and an average of a little under 2,000,000 gallons per day of liltered and chlorinated Illinois River water haa been introduced into the aquifer. The e5ect of thia in6ltration is shown in a rained water tahle extending up to half a mile away from the infiltration pit. Figure 3 shows a profile through the Peoria recharge pit. Ground water lev& in the Enst St. Louk area appear to respond to Buctuation~in local rainfall Indications rua that a dry spell prior to 1941 had lowered water levels in the wells, but since that time water leveln have d e d fsirly constant in respome to n o d precipitation. The East St. huia area is similar to the Dayton, Ohio, water remurca picture wbem w e b pump over QO,OOO,000gallons per day from the alluvial bottoms of the Miami and the Mad rivers. Precipitation appears to replace part of this withdrawd.
SURFAC!S WATER The five-sbte area is copiouely supplied with surface water rem-. Four of the five Great Lakes provide 1300 miles of boundden for a part of each of the five states. Wwwnsin haa literally thowands of lakes with mme fairly lare ones.
CHEMISTRY
491
Michigan also has and large areas of low l a n d s . In O h i o t h e r e a r e aeveral small lakes principally along the watershed divide in the center of the state between Akron and Canton. However NORTl Ohio haa less than 100 equare , milee of water surface except for ENTRAL the Lake Erie oosstline. Indiana has many glacial lakes and formerly had much m a r s h l a n d which is now put into drainage districts. Except for the twc northeast counties of Illinois, that state has few natural lakes of any consequence. However the state does have over 5M) very small hkce and over 600 impoundments which give a combination of municipal water supply and some recreational activity such as at LBLea Bracken and Bloomington (8) in the central part of the state and Crab Orchard Lake and some of the d l e r reservqim in the muthern part of the state. In all the s b t e s the rivers rua important from the industrial standpoint. They provide large quantities of water for aooling and condensing purposes and in addition they recharge their d u vial plains from which water is later obtained It is estimated by Macgichan (8)that surface water n o w provide the following amountm of withdrawal w:
----_
1
Billion Gallons per Day
Illinois
Indispa
8.3 1.8
Wiaconain
1.6
Micbn Ohio
4.7 8
These status have a combined withdrawal of 24.4 billion gallons per day which is 13.2% of the tow estimated withdrawal use of water in the United Status in 1950. For comparieon these five miatea pump 1.255 billion gallous per day of ground water, which is approximately 4.18% of the national total withdrawal w e in 1950.
The Ohio River has an average Bow at Metropolis, Ill., of 172, 185 billion gallons per day. The minimum ohnerved Bow is 13.5 billion gallons per day. The four main rivera in the state of Ohio contribute an average Bow of 13.014 billion OM per day to the Ohio River. Their combined minimum Bow is 585,000,OOO gallons per day. Indiana's wntribution to Ohio River Bow averages 1.112 biion gallons per day. The minimum Bow for thcw riven is 140,000,000 gallons per day. Illinois adds an additional minimum Bow to the Ohio River of 1.056 billion gallous per day. These 6gwea rua Bows m& regularly on key rivem. The large totel measured Bow at Metropolis includes NnoE from arean south of the Ohio River. Reeords indicate aurface Bow from WieeonsiO into the Mimi+ sippi River averagcs 5.604 billion gallons per day. The minimum flow is a p p m h t e l y 1.3 billion gallons per day. Flow from thia miate into Lake Michigan averages 10.567 billion gallous per day. The minimum Bow is wO,000,OOO gallous per day. Illinois contributen to the Misaissippi River an average flow of 19.779 hillion gallons per day ( I d ) . The minimum Bow is 2.5 billion gallons per day. Illinois contributes practically no runoff into Lake Michigan and an average volume of nearly 2 hillion gallous per day Bows fmm the lake into the Illinois Waterway. Under the Federal Permit of 1930 a0 average of nearly 1 billion gallons per day is diverted from the lake into the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal which Bows into the Illinois River and thence to
492
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 46,No. 3
In areas where ground viater is available one general yardstick is that 1000 gallons can be pumped from 200 feet depth by one ldoxatt. In the Chicago area i t is reported that ground water can be put into an industrial distribution system for 6 cents per 1000 gallons. One northern Illinois municipality found that i t could raise well lvater into its distribution system for 3 cents per 1000 gallons. Hazen (4) has made a nationwide survey to obtain cost, figures for surface water supplies of 13 to 14,000,000 gallons per day. Cnit costs varj- throughout the country, but he found that small reservoirs cost $250 to $300 per acre-foot ranging down to $175 for larger ones. He reported that 30-inch pipelines cost $120,000 per mile, and a 5,000,000-gallon-per-day filter plant costs $450,000. He estimates that operat,ion costs for filter plants range from 815 to $18 per million gallons depending upon water composition. Most of Hazen’s cost dat’a pertain to rclatively large water supplies. Some of his data, he says, may be used as a general guide to probable costs of small or large supplies, but only with caution. Unless an industry is located near a large body of water or has adequate ground water available, the problem of providing an adequate water supply will require careful planning. PRESENT STATE OF OUR INVENTORY In recent years there has been much discuesion concerning the inadequacy of our present inventories of water resources. In Illinois the Figure 4. M i n i m u m Gaged Surface Water Flow in East North Central situation wit,h respect to water resources is very States (72) similar to that of the national picture. I n areas of Amounts i n million gallons per day intensely concentrated use ive do have difficulties with adequacy of supply, but taking the state as a whole there is no indication of severe dethe hIississippi. An almost equal amount is taken from the lake ficiency. There are acute water shortages in some local areas. The unfortunate part is that there is not enough water by Chicago for public water supply. The state of Michigan contributes approsinlately 6.825 billion where we have been in the habit of pumping it rather than that gallons per day average runoff into Lake Michigan. The minimum flow is roughly 1 billion gallons per day. The same state provides a gaged flow of 1.43 billion gallons per day to Lake Huron with a minimum flow of 43,000,000 gallons per day. Records show that Indiana contributes an average of 3.973 billion gallons per day into Lake Erie. The minimum gaged flow is 17,500,000gallons per day. From the same state the total flow of gaged streams carrying water from Indiana into Lake Michigan is approximately 1.95 billion gallons per day. The minimum flow is 18,000,000 gallons per day. According to published records Ohio discharges an average of 4.438 billion gallons per day into Lake Erie with a minimum of 30,000,000 gallons per day. Published flow records of the Mississippi River a t Alton, Ill., indicate an average discharge of 61.685 billion gallons per day. Figure 4 shows the minimum gaged surface water flow in the East Korth Central States. Data were obtained from the published records of the Water Resources Branch, E. s. Geological Survey. COST OF INDUSTRIAL WATER The cost of industrial water is proportional to the distance from the source of supply. Probably every known use of water is applied somewhere in the chemical industry so that the cost of treatment may also be a big factor in arriving a t the ultimate cost.
Figure 5. Hydrologic Cycle for Illinois
March 1954
INDUSTRIAL AND ENG INEERING CHEMISTRY
there is an over-all lack of water in our f i V e 4 a k area. We have estimated that in Illinois the preeent total water available could accommodate, with our present methods, ten times our present population. The &t shortage that would he encouutered would he that of water supply.
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE Atmospheric moisture is the bw EOof water. There are comparatively few who &e the relation between the amount of lain that falls and the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. We have made some calculations which show that when it rains. a relatively minor fraction of all the moisture iq the atmosphere falla to the earth, and a considerable fraction is immediately evaporated back into the atmosphere. Figure 5 shows the hydrologic cycle over Illinoie. From a long-term standpoint, atmoe pheric moisture in our large unexplored source of water supply. Atmospheric moisture results from evaporation of ocean water and thie water is brought inland by wind circulahy solar m-, tion. &me mebrologhts believe that i t is possible to extra& thie moisture at a grater rate than by natural means. Modern developments in induetzy, especially in the chemical industry, require tremendous amounts of water at very low cost. The enormoue amount of atmospheric moisture available makes study of its development for nse attractive. At preeent such research seems to offer the most promising long-term solution to our water supply problems. To reduce costa, we need to put into effect some of the things we already h o w about atmospheric m0ktur-s.
logical Michigan Survey Department operates, ofand Health. the
In addition the Michigan State College cooperates with the U.8.
Led, and the two surveys work jointly on ground water problems. The Water Survey cooperates with the U.8. Geological Survey as the primary sponsor of stream gaging within Illinois. WiacOnSin has been actively engaged in surface water stream& Since 1913. Formerly the Railroad Commkion which later became the Public Service Commiasion cooperated with the U. 8. Geological Survey in the stream-gaging program. Since 1945 ground water activities in WiswnSin have been conducted on a cooperative hasia between the University of Wm cousin and the U.8.Geological Survey. In Ohio a program of surface water investigation wan started in 1920 by the Ohio Cooperative Topographic Survey in cooperation with the U.8. Geological Survey. Ground water studies are carried on in Ohio on a cooperative hasin between the U.8. Geologieal Survey and the Ohio Water Resources Board which wan organiaed in 1945. In Michigan cooperative studies of the water resource8 were begun in 1941by the Michigan Geological Survey. The investigative programis presently sponsored by the Water resource^ Commiasion, the Department of Conservation within which the Geo-
Resources
Geological Survey on ~ n o fand f related studies. In Indiana the first systematic study of the state’s water resources WBE hegun in 1922 when the engineering division of the consenration department began making stresm Bow measurements. In 1930 the U. 8. Geological Survey cooperated on this work and in 1935 the department of conservation entered into another cooperative agreement with the survey for carrying on an investigation of the ground water resources of the state. These five states bad an annual appropriation of 11,600,ooO for water I P M I I ~studies accordinn to the latest l i m e s available. These agencies, with the support that they obtain from their state govemmenta, bold the key to the future development of water resoin the five-state a m . Illinois, on the basis of using all of the state’s stream Bow for induetrial and municipal purpo~es,and with no increaeed re-nse techniques, could support about double ita present industry with the water rwurces i t now has. The other four states in this m a have eimilar or better water resources if they are properly d e veloped.
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WATER RESCJUFCE’ AQENCIES
In our five-state area tbe oldest water resource agency is the Illinois State Water Survey which has been in conthuous operstion Since 1896. In 1905 the State Geological Survey was organ-
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L I r n T U R E CITED (1) Buswell. A. M.. Suter, Msx, Hudson. H. E., Jr.. “Chicago Area Water Supply,” Illinois State Water Survey. Circ. 29 (1950). (2) D-her. W. J.. Dieher. F. C., and Brown. P. N., U. 8. Geol. survey, circ. 247 (1953). (3) Foley, F. C., peraonal communication (July 1953). (4) Hasen, R.. Ew. Nnos-R~cmd,150.304 (Feb. 26. 1953). (5) Klaer. F. H., Jr., and Stallman. R. W.. “Ground Water Resow- of St. Joseph County, Ind..” Waos Dept. Conservation.Div. Water Reaouroee. Bull. 3 (1948). (6) MscKichsn, K.A,. U. S. Geol. 8urvey, Ciic. 115 (1950). (7) Murdock. J. R.. “Physioal and Economic Foundstion of Natural Resources.” U. 8. Conmeas. Hrmac D m m M 706 (ISSO). (8) Roberta. W. J.. “Hydrology of Five Illinois W a t e ~Supply Reservoirs," Illinois State Water Survey. Bull. 38 (1948). (91 \-,Rrnit,h. H. -- F.. and Lareon. T.E..“Ground Water Reaoureea in Winnebno County,” Illinois State Water Survey, Rep!. 1naat. 2 71948,. Suter, Max, “Ground Water in the Peoria Region,” Illinois State Water S u m , Bull. 39 (1960). Thomas. A. E.. “Conservation of Ground Water.” New York, MoGrw+Hill Book Co., 1951. U. 8. Geol. Survey, Water Suppl! P?F 1175 (1950). walton. W.C.. peraonal cornmumcabon (June 1953). wide?. C . 0..8tramel. G . J.. and Laird, L. B., U. E. Geol.
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