E-Waste and Associated Environmental Contamination in the Asia

Chapter 6

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E-Waste and Associated Environmental Contamination in the Asia/Pacific Region (Part 1): An Overview Paromita Chakraborty,*,1,2 Sakthivel Selvaraj,1 Masafumi Nakamura,3 Balasubramanian Prithiviraj,1 Shunkei Ko,4 and Bommanna G. Loganathan5 1SRM

Research Institute, SRM University, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu-603 203, India 2Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Research Institute, SRM University, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu-603 203, India 3Hiyoshi Corporation, Kitanosho 908, Omihachiman, Shiga 523-0806, Japan 4Hiyoshi India Ecological Services Private Limited, TICEL Biopark Ltd., Taramani, Chennai, Tamilnadu-600 113, India 5Department of Chemistry and Watershed Studies Institute, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071, United States *E-mail: [email protected]

An increasing demand for electronic equipment and the rapid growth of the electronic industry has resulted in the production of large amounts of electronic waste (e-waste), including obsolete computers, cellular phones, televisions etc. Transboundary movement of disposed e-waste in developing countries for recycling and extraction of precious metals in crude manner is of severe environmental and human health concern. In spite of a global ban through the Basel Convention, during the past two decades several countries in the Asia Pacific region are involved in recycling e-waste scrap mostly by informal or crude methods. China, India and Pakistan were major importers of e-waste, in addition to their own proliferated domestic origin. Other South Asian countries also receives a fair portion. Although e-waste related legislation has been adopted in different countries at different stages, South Asian countries are still lagging in preventive

© 2016 American Chemical Society Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


measures. While India and Sri Lanka have taken legislative measures to control the activity, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan are yet to enforce the laws in this sector. Highly toxic pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo- p-furans (PCDDs/Fs) are reported to be formed or emitted during e-waste recycling process. This chapter provides an overview on e-waste production/import and handling in various South Asian countries viz., Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar. In addition, various persistent toxic substances (PTS) that are released during the e-waste handling and recycling process are delineated. Recommendations for energy savings and resource conservation are discussed.

Abbreviations BDT: Bangladeshi Taka BM: Base Metals CEA: Central Environmental Authority EU: European Union ICT: Information and Communication Technology IT: Information Technology PAH: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyls PCDD/F: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/ furan PM: Precious Metal PTS: Persistent Toxic Substances PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation UAE: United Arab Emirates USA: United States of America

Introduction Electronic waste (e-waste) is used as a generic term incorporating all types of waste that consists of electrically powered components containing precious metals (PM) or base metals (BM). Electronic appliances are made of different materials that can be of high economic value. Since e-waste contain both valuable materials (PM and BM) as well as hazardous materials, special techniques are needed for handling and recycling of e-waste. Electrical and electronic equipment are generally safe under normal working conditions but improper method of disposal and crude recycling process release highly toxic substances into the environment (1). Handling and management of e-waste is a challenging task for many countries, particularly in the Asia/Pacific region. Crude methods of e-waste 128 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


recycling is emerging as a global concern due to the release of persistent toxic substances (PTS) into the environment which ultimately may affect human health. Most of the e-waste produced globally is from U.S.A, Europe and Australasia, with estimated amounts of 27, 8.3-9.1 and 2.6 million tons, respectively (1). But due to higher labor costs and tougher environmental regulations in these countries, a large portion of these wastes are not processed in the source country but rather exported to developing nations in Asia and Africa (1). It has been estimated that 50-80% of e-waste collected from USA are exported to developing countries for recycling (2, 3). China receives about 70% of the e-waste exported from developed nations and is claimed to be the world’s largest importer and recycler of e-waste (1). As the Chinese government is trying to reduce the import of e-waste (4, 5), it is expected that substantial amounts will end up in other countries in the Asia Pacific region (5). Significant amounts of e-waste are also exported to other developing countries in the Asia Pacific region (India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia) (1, 6). The global generation of e-waste is expected to increase in the future (5) and possibly more significantly in the Asia Pacific region because of the rapid economic growth and technological advancements (1). Extremely high levels of PTS have been reported from the crude e-waste recycling sites of China (5) and Africa (Nigeria and Ghana) (1, 6). Guiyu, a major e-waste recycling center in southeastern part of China, showed extremely high values of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from an open burning site (7). Elevated emissions of PAHs associated with open burning are attributed to a combination of elevated temperatures and short combustion residence times (8, 9). Elevated atmospheric concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been reported from Taizhou in 2005 (10) and 2007 (11) due to historical dismantling of PCB containing e-waste. The dietary exposure in this region exceeded the WHO limit (70 pg TEQ kg-1bw-1month-1) (12) and substantial non-dietary exposure has been observed due to high levels of PCBs in air and dust (13). Nearly 13% of the 40 million tons of e-waste generated worldwide every year is sent to South Asian countries viz., India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka for recycling (14). During the last decade, countries in the Asia Pacific region generated huge quantities of domestic e-waste as well. During late 1990s to early 2000, the number of personal computer users increased by 1052% in China and 604% in India (15). Again 61% of the world’s mobile phones are used in developing countries (16) and the associated e-waste constitutes on average 8% of the global municipal waste stream (17), corresponding to 40 million tons per year in 2008 (18). Europe produces 8.3-9.1 million tons of e-waste annually (19, 20). Globally, this quantity is growing at a rate of 3-5% per year (21). The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has banned hazardous and radioactive wastes as SAARC’s environmental strategic development goal (22). But e-waste has not been included in the list of hazardous waste for any action. Figure 1 shows the e-waste generation in south Asian countries and major Indian cities. Several toxic pollutants, such as PCBs, PAHs, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDDs/Fs) are reported to be formed during the e-waste recycling procedures (8). In this study, current 129 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


scenarios of e-waste in South Asian countries of Asia Pacific region and problems associated with informal e-waste recycling in these countries have been discussed.

Figure 1. Domestic e-waste generation in South Asian countries including major Indian cities. Red bars indicate the domestically generated e-waste from Indian cities. Green bars indicate the overall e-waste generated from the South Asian countries. (Data were obtained from various sources (23–25)).

E-Waste Generation/Import and Handling in Bangladesh Every year roughly 2.8 million tons of e-waste is generated in Bangladesh. Due to a lack of awareness about the harmful effects of e-waste, such hazardous wastes are dumped into the open landfills, farm lands and water bodies (26). Nearly 15% of the total waste generated in Dhaka (mainly inorganic), amounting nearly 475 tons, are recycled daily (26). Only 20 to 35% of these wastes are recycled and the rest laid into landfills , rivers, ponds, drains, lake , canals and open spaces (26). So far there is no inventory to assess the extent of the e-waste problem in Bangladesh. Reuse of electronic equipment is a common practice in Bangladesh. Electronic equipment recycling and dismantling is a growing business in Bangladesh. Formal e-waste dismantling facility is lacking in Bangladesh. All the e-waste recycling is therefore carried out by the informal sector. Approximately 40% of the 120,000 poor people involved in the e-waste recycling trade chain in the capital city, Dhaka, are chidren below 10 years (26). People were found to suffer from different diseases due to e-waste handling and servicing work (27) Workers in the recycling shops were found to be underpaid with monthly wages of approximately BDT 3000 while a day labourer earns almost double (approximately BDT 200 per day) (28).

E-Waste Handling/Processing in Sri Lanka Until 1992 when the Basel Convention was signed for the control of transboundary movement of hazardous waste there was no proper e-waste management in Sri Lanka . A national policy on e-waste management has been drafted and plenty of public-private partnerships have been established to manage 130 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


e-waste in a sustainable way. The Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy and the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) are heading the efforts as policy makers and enforcers of the law (29). Presently, the e-waste management system in Sri Lanka includes recycling, reuse, servicing, exporting for refinement to the world’s market and disposal. However, it appears that these steps are not sufficient to manage the entire quantity of e-waste generated in the country (30). Due to the significant growth in investments, consumption and exports in Sri Lankathe general consumption of electrical and electronic products such as computers, mobile phones, and televisions have increased. This represents the largest proportion of waste, followed by information and communication technology equipment and consumer electronics (31). As a result, a huge e-waste problem in the domestic front and imports from developed countries is lurking Srilanka. Overall, these hazardous wastes are currently disposed off in a haphazard manner along roadsides, dump yards and sometimes in home gardens (32). However, trading of used electronic items has become a common practice and the number of sales centers have increased notably within past few years (31).

E-Waste Handling/Processing in Pakistan E-waste imported in Pakistan originates from other countries viz., the USA, European Union (EU), United Arab Emirates (UAE), Singapore and Africa primarily due to the increasing demand and dependence of Pakistan’s population on cheap information and communication technology (ICT) equipment (33). The existing legislative structure for prevention of these e-waste flow may not be effective due to mislabeling of the equipment by illegal traders and receive the transfer certificate from Basal Convention (33). It appears that until now, strategies for tackling e-waste or regulations for e-waste disposal as part of the national IT Policy and Action Plan of 2000 are lacking in Pakistan. The high profit from the crude or informal e-waste recycling business attracts a vulnerable class of individuals including children, women and men below the poverty line, to carry out toxic procedures (33).

E-Waste Import/Generation and Handling in India Recently a steady increasing trend in e-waste generation in India, with at least two and a half times increase in every two years has been reported (34). In 2005, about 0.15 million tons of e-waste was reported (34) and in 2014 SteP foundation estimated 1.6 million tons of e-waste (25). Breivik (35) stated that the uncertainty in the data adds to the fact that official records are absent. Toxic link (36) observed that the ambiguity might have become more complex due to the unscreened imports from major ports of the country. Mumbai generates the maximum amount of e-waste in India (0.47 million tons), followed by New Delhi (0.32 million tons), Bangalore (0.28 million tons) and Chennai (0.23 million tons) (37). New Delhi, the capital city of India has been identified as the potential hotspot for e-waste recycling where different sites are involved in different 131 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


informal processes (37). Chakraborty (38) reported that the higher homologs of atmospheric PCBs resulted from informal e-waste recycling in New Delhi and Agra. It is estimated that 48 tons of e-waste flows into New Delhi every day for recycling (39). Moradabad, located in Uttarpradesh, receives e-waste from all major metropolitan cities of India. Cooking of circuit boards and mother boards using acid baths to recover precious metals are prevalent in this region and follows a four step process of segregation, open burning, grinding and washing, followed by extraction of precious metals using acid bath (40). In addition, decommissioned electrical equipment like transformers and capacitors also ends up in e-waste pile. A strong correlation was obtained between atmospheric PCB concentration and the corresponding e-waste generation for seven major Indian cities and the corresponding state’s PCB oil stockpile (38). Though Mumbai dominates e-waste production in the country (0.47 million tons per year), New Delhi recycles nearly 40% of the country’s e-waste (41). Chakraborty (42) stated that the proximity of the ports in Mumbai and Chennai aids the influx of e-waste in these cities thereby leading to the release of PTS like PCBs in soil during informal e-waste recycling process.

E-Waste Handling/Processing in Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar UNEP (43) reported that consumption of electronic goods are increasing in Nepal, but waste characterization studies have not been initiated. Despite the initial study of identification and quantification of electronic products in 2007, specific policies and legislations are absent. Under the Waste Prevention and Management Regulation of 2012, Bhutan monitors and implements e-waste management policies. This includes detail provisions for every producer, importer, exporter, transporter and consumer for handling e-waste (44). The Yangon government has no immediate plans on the e-waste, although some plans have been formulated under the municipal law for regulations of disposing batteries, electronic circuits and electronic devices (23). In 2012 it was estimated that the total e-waste generated by Myanmar was 50,000 tons but the same has not been confirmed by the government.

Persistent Toxic Substances Associated with Crude E-Waste Recycling Processes Improper disposal of e-waste in landfills, open burning of discarded e-waste in the dumpsites and crude process of e-waste recycling in developing economies may lead to release of PTS in the environment. Crude e-waste recycling in the developing countries releases heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, mercury, PCBs, PVC etc. (38) Lead and cadmium are present in circuit boards, lead oxide and cadmium in monitor cathode ray tubes (CRTs), mercury in switches and flat screen monitors, cadmium in computer batteries, PCBs in older capacitors and transformers, and halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), such as PBDEs on printed circuit boards, plastic casings and cables. PVC insulation cables when burnt to retrieve copper releases highly toxic PCDD/Fs (Figure 2). Toxins generated from 132 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


the open burning of plastic shells, printed circuit boards and other non-ferrous materials contained in e-waste pollutes the air, water and groundwater and are growing concerns for health authorities in and around the regions where such practices take place. In fact, due to the presence of PVC and brominated flame retardants in wires, the emissions contain high levels of both brominated and chlorinated dioxins and furans. Dioxins and furans are the two most deadly persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that can emit as secondary substances during the recycling process (Figure 2). Even traces of carcinogenic compounds like PAHs are released due to incomplete combustion of e-waste. Hence, improper handling of e-waste can be a potential threat to public health. Such PTS can cause permanent health disorders, including nervous system damage, seizures, retardation, kidney failures and even can effect child development. Possible sources of such contaminants in South Asian countries are related to mostly informal e-waste recycling. A hypothetical model has been prepared explaining the sources of PTS associated with informal e-waste recycling in India (Figure 2). The informal e-waste recycling chain can be divided into three main subsequent steps – i) collection, ii) dismantling and pre-processing and iii) endprocessing for final metal recovery. Each step generates significant hazardous substances which can adversely affect the health and environment. Three major categories of PTS can be identified during the informal e-waste recycling process: •

•

•

Direct release of PTS during dismantling of e-waste: Primarily the hazardous substances that are contained in e-waste (e.g. toxic metals viz., lead, mercury, arsenic, PCBs, fluorinated cooling fluids etc.) are released during shredding or dismantling of e-waste. Formation of toxic byproducts during precious metal recvery: Secondary substances are produced during improper methods of e-waste recycling (e.g. dioxins or furans formed by incomplete combustion/inappropriate smelting or burning of plastics coated with halogenated flame retardants). Intermediate PTS during precious metal recovery process: Hazardous substances or reagents that are used during e-waste recycling (e.g. cyanide or other leaching agents, mercury for gold amalgamation) are released mostly during the extraction of precious metals using inorganic acids.

According to Weber (45), many developing countries rely heavily on uncontrolled landfilling and open burning. Clearly, the potential for atmospheric emission and release of PTS from such sites are substantially complicated when compared to those contained and designated landfills in developed countries in mid-latitudes (45, 46). The situation may be further exacerbated by the more limited storage capacity of environmental surface media within tropical regions in retaining these chemicals (47). Elevated temperatures encountered in the sub-tropical and tropical regions of Asia Pacific region are very different from former use regions in mid-latitudes. This has profound implications for any attempt to assess atmospheric emissions such as volatilization, in addition to combustion. Volatilization is expected to be a key process by which these semi-volatile chemicals are emitted in air because it is strongly temperature 133 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


dependent (48). It has been proposed that an increase in air temperature by 1°C will increase the volatility of compounds like PCBs by about 10 to 15% (49).

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the crude e-waste processing steps in the Asia Pacific Region and possible pathways for the release of expected toxicants in different environmental matrices.

Summary and Perspectives The increasing load of informal e-waste recycling sectors in the developing countries of Asia Pacific region calls for novel conceptual and methodological approaches relating to chemical pollution and contamination of the surrounding biota and the associated impact on human health. For many other low- and middle-income countries e-scrap is a valuable commodity for extracting metals or manufacturing new devices from discarded electronic components. The value of e-waste has increased in recent years with the rising demand for PM used in laptops, cellular phones, and other electronic devices. Recycling of e-waste for metal recovery is also important from the perspective of saving energy. Current e-waste programs and businesses offer early lessons which may help to replace the informal recycling sector with more sustainable practices and profitable business. But for the global e-waste market, backyard recyclers can often be more profitable and therefore can continue their ad-hoc operations rather than sell to large-scale e-waste processors or middlemen. In developing countries, where e-waste is a huge problem, gold extraction can be exploited as a highly profitable endeavor. Highly innovative methods of perfecting the process of recovering gold from e-waste can change the landscape of electronics recycling. Not only e-waste recycling in sustainable manner will be a viable way to combat the growing e-waste crisis, it can also be extremely profitable. Recovery of precious and base metals is important for e-waste management, recycling, sustainability and resource conservation. The value distribution of PMs in printed circuit boards and calculators is more than 80%. 134 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries I ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

After PMs, copper is the next highest value metal to be extracted from e-waste. It is worth noting that sustainable resource management demands the isolation of hazardous metals from e-waste and also maximizes the recovery of PMs. The loss of PMs during the recycling chain will adversely affect the profit margin. The extraction of PMs (Au, Ag and Pd) and BMs (Cu, Pb and Zn) from e-waste is the prime economic drive due to their associated value.


Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Clmate Change, Government of India (File No.Q-14011/ 43/2013-CPW (EHC)). The authors would also like to thank Dr. Satish Sinha and Mr. Piyush Mohapatra from Toxic Link, New Delhi for extending their help to visit e-waste recycling sites of New Delhi.

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E-Waste and Associated Environmental Contamination in the Asia

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