Early Ironworks of Pennsylvania
THE DURHAM FURNACES R. D. BILLINGER Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.
T
HE iron industry in Pennsylvania boasts of a long and interesting development. Less than fifty years after William Penn received his grant of the province from Charles the Second in 1681, ironworks were established in several eastern localities. In 1729 Thomas Makin, colonial teacher and poet, wrote:
There were several ironworks in Pennsylvania before Durham. I n the ten years prior to 1726 at least three other beginnings were made in the province. The Pool forge (1716) and the Colebrookdale furnace (1720) in the vicinity of Pottstown, and the Redding furnace (k728 1 ) on French Creek were in operation when Durham was started (6). However, Godcharles, the Pennsylvania historian, states that the Durham furnace was probably the second erected in Pennsylvania,
Here num’rous mines of many kinds are found, And precious metals, treasured in the groundHere too the magnet’s found, whose wondrous power Directs the seamen to each distant shore.
(4-
I N 1683, a year after Penn visited the province, he wrote of the existence of “copper and iron in divers places” in Pennsylvania. Penn had iron furnaces in Sussex, England, and naturally was interested in developing its manufacture here. The Dutch and Swedes who came earlier to the region of the Delaware apparently never found the iron deposits. Certainly they manufactured no iron (IO). Penn encouraged James Logan, his secretary, to contact those who had knowledge of the mineral veins. The existence of iron ore in the vicinity of Durham was known in 1698, because a group of Shawnee Indians from the south was placed a t Pechoqueolin, near Durham, to take care of the iron mines ( 3 ) . I n 1701 Jacob Tyler surveyed a tract of 5000 acres which contained the iron deposits and which Penn had purchased from the Indians (8). In 1726 the Durham Iron Company was organized to erect a blast furnace “for the manufacture of charcoal pig iron, the casting of pots, pans, kettles, firebacks, and other castings” (4).
A few states claim ironworkings earlier than Pennsylvania. I n 1585 iron ore was discovered in North Carolina by men sent by Sir Walter Raleigh. By 1608 iron ore was exported from Virginia to be smelted in England. In 1619 a forge was erected at Falling Creek, Va., 66 miles above James. town, but i t was destroyed by the Indians in 1622 and was not rebuilt. The first successful furnace in the American Colonies was erected a t Saugus Centre near Lynn, Mass., in 1642. This operated until 1652 when the bog ore deposit was exhausted. Another furnace, sometimes confused with the first, was begun a t Braintree, Mass., in 1644. Both of these ventures were established by John Winthrop, Jr., and his partners. The present paper treats of the iron industry which centered about Durham in Bucks County, Pa. This company was organized in 1726 and began operation the following year. This was 107 years after the first Virginia venture, 428
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The partnership agreement between the fourteen men in the original association was dated March 4, 1727, and was to continue for fifty-one years. The names were those of men prominent in the affairs of the day. Besides Logan, there were William Allen, later chief justice of Pennsylvania and founder of Allentown; George Fitzwater, later a signer of the Declaration of Independence; Clement Plumsted and Charles Read who became mayors of Philadelphia; Anthony Morris (brewer) ; John Hopkins (mariner) ; Thomas Lindley (anchor smith) ; Jeremiah Langhorne (gentleman) ; Andrew Bradford (colonial printer) ; Robert Ellis; and Joseph Turner. To these were added Griffith Owen and Samuel Powell as trustees. Several of these m e n - e . g., Allen, Morris, and Turner--were part owners of other furnaces. B. F. Fackenthal, Jr., who was in charge of later Durham furnaces, states that there is some evidence of an earlier iron operation in the Durham region. The furnace of 1727 operated intermittently for sixty-two years until 1789. Whatever was left of the buildings was replaced by a gristmill in 1820. There still remains, however, a stone arch in the bank where the original stack stood. A sketch of an early map of Durham is shown in Figure 1. The author has endeavored to locate a sketch of some of the early furnaces but so far has been unable to trace one. It seems almost incredible that an industry described by Acrelius in 1758 as “the best ironworks in the country” did not inspire some colonial artist to reproduce a picture for future generations. However, we can get some idea of the early works by consulting the records and visiting the region in its present state.
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DURHAM is located at the extreme north of Bucks County along a beautiful stream which flows east to the Delaware River. This stream, first known as Schook’s, now Durham Creek, furnished water power for the blast furnace. A furnace dam about a mile upstream and a race ensured a steady flow of water to run the huge bellows, which acted as a blower. The 1727 furnace was built of stone. It was probably 40 feet square a t the bottom and tapered upward to a height of approximately 30 feet. Within the outer walls was a lining of sand or stone and then a center core of refractory clay or firebrick. An idea of this construction may be obtained from Figure 2 . This sketch, which was authentic for a much later period ( 9 ) , can be considered only an approximation of the f u r n a c e in question. Descriptions of cont e m p o r a r y furnaces a r e g i v e n by Bining (1) and Boyer ( 2 ) . The fuel used in all furnaces of that period was charcoal. T h e wood for t h e charcoal was obtained from t h e neighboring
FIGURE2. APPROXIMATE CONSTRUCTION OF EARLY FURNACE (9)
FIGURE1. MAP OF DURHAM IRONCOMPANY’S REALESTATE(4) Showing location of furnaces, forges, stamping mills, mines, eto. Durham township as organized in 1775 is shown within black lines.
forests and burned not far from the furnace. The ore was for the most part magnetite obtained from nearby Mine Hill and Rattlesnake Hill. This ore was hauled by wagon on a road which led to the top of the furnace. Thence it was shoveled or dumped by basket into the furnace from above. Limestone and sand were obtained less than one-half mile away. Here was an industry with all of its raw materials within a short radius of the furnace. The capacity of the early furnace was about 2 tons of iron every 24 hours. The freezing weather of the winter months necessitated shutdowns. Hence the annual production was probably only 350 tons a year. For many years (as late as 1780) negro slave labor was used to assist in the operations. The negroes farmed surrounding country and answered to a signal blast blown on a horn when the metal was tapped. Some of this metal was cast into pigs for use in the near-by forges along Durham Creek; some of it went into firebacks and
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drinking glasses, and we hope to have wine and oil for merchandise, and hemp for cordage, and iron and lead and other minerals” (7). In 1743 some eighteen families in Durham township petitioned to be included in Spring field, but the organization of the present township was delayed until 1775. Roads to other parts of the state were slow in being opened, since the river afforded an outlet to the world. Gradually, however, roads converged toward Durham, and it became a center for business and for many meetings with the Indians. I n 1755, when George Taylor and Samuel Flower were lessees of the Durham furnace, they made cannon shot for the French and Indian War. On the night of April 8, 1768, a fire destroyed the frame dwellings connected with the plant. These were rebuilt, and by 1770 there were two f u r n a c e s a n d t w o forges in the region. From 1773 to 1778 the Durham works made shot and cannon for the Continental Army. George Taylor was now General Taylor and signer of the Declaration of Independence. I n 1781 the v a l u e of t h e p r o d u c t i o n amounted to 1982 tons. This i n c l u d e d shot and shell, shipped to Philadelphia in Durham boats or overland by a route unknown to the British.
T H E ownership of the industry passed through many hands, especially during the period of the Revolution. From about 1789 until 1848 Durham lay in idleness as far as the iron industry was concerned. Then two anthracite f u r n a c e s were erected near the mouth of Durham Creek by Joseph Whitaker and Company. This was the era of canal transDortation: and coal was received via the Lehigh FIGURE3. (Above) WHITAKERFURNACES, 1848, A N D (Below) COOPER AND 1874 ( 4 ) and Delaware canals from the anthracite regions HEWITTFURNACES, some 70 miles away. A picture of these furnaces is shown in Figure 3. stove plates for colonial homes, and there was enough to allow In 1874 Cooper and Hewitt built the last Durham furfor some export. In 1728 James Logan shipped 3 tons of iron naces (Figure 3) which boasted of the more recent innovations to England, no doubt to convince the proprietors of the sucof hot blast and of the double-bell and hopper system of cess of the early venture. Peter Kalm, a Swedish naturalist charging. These improvements were designed by Edward visited Pennsylvania in 1748 and wrote that “so much iron was Cooper, a brilliant engineer and son of the illustrious Peter made in the colony that not only the inhabitants had plenty, Cooper. The other member of this firm, Abram S. Hewitt, but foreign ships were also stocked.” In 1752 exports down was equally capable and rose to even higher honors. He was the Delaware amounted to: bar iron, 4491 tons; iron rods, awarded the Bessemer gold medal by the British Iron and 189 tons; and pig iron, 205 tons. Durham boats were used Steel Institute, served twelve years in Congress, and was to transport this iron, but the output came from both Jersey mayor of New York for one term (1887-88). and Pennsylvania furnaces. In October, 1870, the Durham plant erected a laboratory The iron had to be hauled little more than a mile by wagon to control scientifically the operation of the blast furnaces. to the Delaware River. Here the cargo was transferred to By 1879 coke was being mixed with the anthracite fuel. river boats made somewhat in the shape of huge canoes. The Cooper and Hewitt furnaces were 75 feet high and 19 These boats were 60 feet long, 8 feet wide, and some 40 inches feet a t the bosh, with a sheet-iron shell similar to the modern deep. Fore and aft the boats were decked over; the center furnaces. There were three blowing engines, eight hot blast of the boat remained open. Three men usually comprised a stoves, bronze tuyhres, and a bronze cinder notch. crew; two manned a pair of 18-foot oars, and the captain Fackenthal estimated the tonnage output of the Durham stenred with a long %foot oar. The boats could sometimes furnaces as follows: carry 20 tons downstream but returned with only about 2 tons of goods for use a t the settlement or manor. These 1727-89 21,700 1848-64 88,000 boats, known as Durham boats, were designed by Robert 1864-74 62,000 Durham, one of the early managers of the furnace. They became the models for most of the navigation boats plying The 1876 furnace produced some 38,500 tons in one year, the upper Delaware. which was more than the early furnaces produced in the whole The number of settlers in early Durham is uncertain. A colonial period. In 1901 the ownership of the furnaces changed, and subletter written in 1682 by James Claypoole states: “We are sequent operations were less successful. Competition and a to send one hundred men to Durham to build houses, to plant and improve land, and to set up a glasshouse for bottles and change in management caused the final shutdown in 1908, u
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which terminated the production of Durham iron after a span of 181 years. Few industries have been linked to as many important characters and events in our national history. In 1912 the plant was dismantled. Specimens of the early firebacks and stove plates are preserved in the Bucks County Historical Museum in Doylestown, as well as in a number of private homes and hotels of the region. Cannon balls have been found in the old slag dump along Durham Creek. The motorist driving 12 miles south from Easton along the Delaware River still sees large slag banks along the canal. A few stone walls sliow the remains of the later furnaces near the river. A paper plant operates on Durham Creek near the site of the later ironworks. To locate the colonial furnace site, it is necessary to drive west a mile or more through a pleasant valley. The gristmill built in 1820 still operates on this historic spot. The giant sycamore and the millrace probably remain as they were over two hundred years ago.
Literature Cited (1) Bining. A. C., Pa.,Mag. fiiatoru Biography. 57, lli-37 (April,
1933) (2) Boyer, C. S., "Esrly Forges and Furnaces in New Jersey." Philadelphia, Univ. Pennsylvania Press. 1931. ( 3 ) Davis, W. W. H.. "History of Rucks Connty." privately published, Doylrstown, Pa., Democratic Book and Job Offioe, 1876.
V., Jr., "Durham Iron Works." privately published, Riegelsville, Pa., 1922: revised in 1937. ( 5 ) Godohmles. F. A.. '~Pennsylvanis,Political, Governmental. Military and Civil." Voi. 4, P. 176, New York. Am. His(4) Fnckenthnl. B.
tnrirni rnr"., IQRR .... " snr.,-.. (6) Goodole, S. L., and Speer, .I. R., "Chronology of Iron and Steel." Pittsburgh Iron and Steel Foundries Co.. 1920.
(7) Gumrnere,k. hl.. "Forges and Furnaoes in Provincial Pennsylvnnia," Philadelphia, Natl, SOC. Colonisl Dames Am., 1914. (8) Miller, R. L., "Topographio and Geologic Atlas of Pennsylvania." No. 206. Allentown Quadrando. . Pa. Geol. Survev. 4th Series, 1925.
Acknowledgment The author acknowledges the generous help of B. F. Fackenthal, Jr., and ,the courtesy of the Bethlehem Steel Company in supplying a photograph of their model furnace.
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Ages." privately published, Philsdelp R e c s r v e ~September 23. 1937. Presented before the Divijion oi the Histury of Chemistry at the 94th Meeting oi the American Chemieal 8eitty. Roehertei, N. Y.. September 6 to I O , 1937.
Economics of Some of the Less Familiar Elements T HE less fnmiliar elements comprise a group of some twenty or more. A number of them are still of minor
H. CONRAD MEYER Foote Mineral Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
a conservat,ive density of 2.5, contains approximately i1,869 tons of titanium, 2966 of zirconium, 456 of lithium, and 114 of beryllium. As there are 1,633,000,000 cubic miles in the lithosphere, the total quantities of the above elements are of astronomical magnitude. It is not to be inferred that any such tonnages are now available for industrial purposes, OP that i t woulrl be economically possible to extract the 0.004 per cent of litliirun in an average cubic mile of the lithosphere,
importance industrially. None of the less known elements here discussed-for example, zirconium-are "rare" from the standpoint of abundance. On the other hand, such familiar elements as gold, silver, and platinum are among the lowest in the scale of abundance and should be rightly classified as rare, although we have been accustomed to think of lithium or beryllium as belonging to the rare category. In this age we are all prone to think and evaluate in cosmic numbers. Hence the present relatively small consumption of some of the less familiar elements leads us to dismiss them as of no economic importance. But let us consider t.he relative abundance of a few of these elements, based on the elaborate calculations of J. H. L. Vogt, F. W. Clarke, H. S. Washington, and others. These geophysicists have assumed that the rocky crust of the earth, 10 miles deep and termed the "lithosphere," has a composition comparable to the average of some five thousand complete analyses of igneous rocks from all parts of the globe. These average analyses show the presence, in significant qnsntities, of less familiar elements such as titanium, zirconium, cerium, yttrium, uranium, tungsten, lithium, columbium, hafnium, and beryhium, R number of which are far more plentiful than such well-known metals as copper, lead, zinc, nnd manganese (Table I). To be more specific, an average ciiliic mile of the litliospliere, witli FIGCRC1. G u m CRYSTAL 05' R~n1-I.WEIGHING 3000
TO
4000 I'oums
