Employment Policies and Practices in American Organizations
Aerial View of Tennessse Eastman Corp,r.ti,,
P s R m P s no field of scicncc has contributed more to our general welfare and standard of living than that of chemistry. I t has given us hetter food, hetter clothing, better homes, better heakh, new industries, greater recreational facilities, and a host of other things. Likewise, in no small sense, it has given to the world the a r t and science of photography as me know and enjoy it today. Like chemistry, phot,ography is still a challenge to the minds and ahilities of many able scientists. George East,man was not a chemist nor did he ever study the subject seriously, hut he knew and appreciated its importance to the science of photography. Early in the history of the Eastman Kodak Company (1886), he employed a young chemist to study and undertake research on chemical problems related to film manufacture. In fact it has been stated that Eastman was among the first to appreciate the full significance of chemical research to industry and to
Plant at Kinzrp.rt.
Tennessee
J. 8. HOWARD Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York
employ a trained chemist to work solely in industrial research. Certainly this understanding and persistent effort in the field of research by Eastman is responsible for much of the photographic progress mhich has been made and mhich in turn has eontrihuted so much to advances in education, industry, medicine, and science, and to your enjoyment and entertainment. One of the most significant chapters of the story hehind this progress was the organization and establishment of the Kodak Research Laboratories under the direction of Dr. C. E. K. Mees in 1912. Since then, the Research Laboratories have been vital to the progress of the company, and have been largely responsible
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JOURNAL O F CHEMICAL EDUCATION
rolls, and packaged into 20,000 types of packaging. Chemical products from Kodak Park also include 160 types of chemicals for photography, 3000 synthetic chemicals for research, and 500 miscellaneous chemicals. In addition, the Tennessee Eastman Corporation produces many more organic chemicals of commercial importance. CHEMISTRY IN PHOTOGRAPHY
Chemistry is the principal science underlying the development, production, and processing of sensitized photographic materials such as film and paper. The Research Laboratories are naturally the center of much of the research in chemistry undertaken by the company, especially that of a fundamental nature, but approximately 50 per cent of the experimental and developmental programs involving chemistry are carried on in investigational and developmental laboratories associated with the manufacturing departments. Oxidation of C e l l d o s e withOxides of Nitrogen toProdvceaHomostetic, Basically, the manufacture of sensitized photographic Absorbable Svrgical Pasking. materials consists of the purification and modification for the major advances made in the photographic field. of raw materials such as cellulose, gelatin, and silver. As contrasted to its staff of 17 employees in 1913, the The problem, however, is twofold. Not only must Research Laboratories now employ over 600 individuals, the goods be produced, but the scientific principles approximately one-half of whom are trained scientists involved and the theory of the photographic process with a university degree. Other research laboratories must be thoroughly understood. The preparation have since been established by the company and its and processing of a color film provide a typical example subsidiaries including the research laboratories of the of these two considerations as well as an interesting Tennessee Eastman Corporation at Kingsport, Tennes- illustration of a variety of applications of chemistry see, the research laboratories associated with Kodak in photography. In a color film, as in any photographic film, the photoLimited in London, the resedirh laboratories of Kodak Path6 in France, and the tropical testing laboratory graphic emulsion is the sensitive element. This erhulsion is a dispersion of silver bromide grains in gelatin, operated by Kodak Panama, Limited. The products of research have been numerous and and the photographically sensitive properties of the varied since Eastman launched his photographic dry emulsion depend not only upon the manner in ~ ~ h i c h plate business in 1880. Listed below are a few of the the raw materials are prepared and purified, but also upon the way in which the silver bromide is colloidally highlights of this progress. precipitated. The film support on which the emulsion 1880-George Eastmnn launched photographic dry plate husiis coated is obtained by treating cotton linters cheminess in Rochester, Xew York. cally to produce a cellulose nitrate or a cellulose acetate 1884-Paper based roll film. 1888-No. 1 Kodak camera. ester, and the formation and physical properties of these 1889-Transparent roll film. esters, which require the applications of high polymer 1896-Motion picture positive film. chemistry, are important to the quality and characteris19W-Brownie camera. tics of the final film product. Incorporated in the emul1909-Cellulose acetate (safety) films. sion or in the solution in vhich the film is later proc1013-Panchromatic movie film. 1914-X-ray film. essed are the color-forming organic compounds which 1923-Home movies on 16-mm. film. produce the dyes of the colored image. These com192GAmateur color movies. pounds are very complex in structure and their synthe1035-Kodachrome film for color pictures. sis involves many organic chemical operations. The 193GLens coating ("Lumenieing"). 1941-Color prints from Kadaehrome transparencies. processing of the film consists of a sequence of steps, 1942-Kodacolar film for color photographs. each of which is a chemical reaction which must be very 1946-Ektaehrome film for color photography. carefully controlled in order to produce satisfactory Today there are many hundreds of sizes and types of results in the final color picture. All four of the major fields of chemistry are important photographic films, papers, and chemicals manufactured a t the company's Kodak Park plant in Rochester. to photography. Although the applications of organic Film and ~ h o t o a a p h i cplate production includes 85- and physical chemistry are perhaps more extensive and roll, 100-sheet, &d-lo-fiim pack sizes, 9 amateur and diversified, analytical and inorganic chemistry are 40 professional types of movie films, and 40 different nevertheless very useful and essential to the research, kinds nf There are 35 tvues of ohoto- development, and manufacturing activities. Many -~ nlxt,es in 45 sizes. graphic paper cut into 1000 different sizes of sheets and of the applications of chemistry are of a familiar and L~
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of derivatives of cellulose and gelatin and the study of their properties. In the field of synthetic polymers, organic chemists prepare monomers, carrying out polymerization studies, and prepare derivatives of highmolecular-weight compounds. One of the interesting and important nonphotographic products resulting from research in cellulose is oxycel, a compound now being manufactured by the Tennessee Eastman Corporation for pharmaceutical and medical use. The chemical properties which permit it to be absorbed harmlessly int,o t,he blood stream make it of unusual value for surgical dressings and bandages. An important technical group manufactures the Eastman Organic Chemicals for research purposes. This department is staffed almost entirely with organic chemists. In synthetic operations ranging from test tube to 100-gallon batch size, the organic chemist has every opportunity to make use of his training and ingenuity, because the tremendous diversity of product calls for practically every type of organic reaction. This department is also extremely important in connection ~ ~ ithe t hproduction of chemicals essential to the manufacture of photographic films and papers. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY S o m e of the Distillation Apparatus Used in the Production of Eastman Orsanic Chemical..
Physical chemistry is likewise important in the research and development n-ork of the Research Labora-
well-known nature, involving studies relating to colloid chemistry, synthetic organic chemistry, high polymer chemistry, instrumental analysis, and other similar divisions of chemistrv. However, some of the most important and interesting applications of chemistry, such as emulsion chemistry, photographic chemistry, and the chemistry of color photography, are unique and peculiar to photography. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
In the field of organic chemistry, synthetic work of both a fundamental and applied nature is undertaken in connection with the preparation of compounds for photographic products and processes. The development of this research program supplemented by research to apply new dye compounds to photographic problems has resulted in the ~ ~ i range d e of sensitized products available today. In connection with the huge volume of synthetic work being done in the field, one group alone has studied several thousand dye compounds to relate construction and configuration of the molecule with the actual color of the dye formed. Much of this work has been published. A large research program is also concerned with the development of new organic dyes for the coloration of cellulose ester textiles. Considerable scientific study is done in the Kodak Research Laboratories in the field of polymeric com~ o u n d s .both natural and svnthetic. T V D ~ofC this ~ type of research on natural products is the preparation " A
To Taka e Picture in 1870 Required e Largs Tripod Cmrnera and Portable Darkroom. The Photographic Plate Had t o B e Msde Just P ~ i o rt o Exposure and Devsloped Immediately Thereaft..
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cases peculiar to the photographic industry. For this reason, research work on analytical methods is important and represents a significant part of the mork being done in chemical research. A wide range of modern physical and chemi' ' cal apparatus is available for the studies. For example, spectroscopic, polarographic, and potentiometric methods are all used. large of quantitative micro-organic analytical determinations are made. Special techniques have been developed such as for the determination of extremely minute amounts of silver and mercury in both simple and complex systems as found in photographic emulsions. There are also special prohlems in inorganic chemistry such View of tho Resealoh Labo~atories.Eastman Kodak Company. et Kodek Park, in Rochester. New York. as those concerned with thedevelopment of methods to purify rare earth oxides tories and in the manufacturing departments of the for their use in Kodak special glass and to purify NaCN company. Fundamental studies are made of the be- containing the C13 isotope. Increasing use is being made of infrared, ultraviolet, havior of materials used in the production of sensitized goods and other products. For example, work is done and flame spectroscopy an well as other now common on the electrochemist~yof aqueous systems of gelatin instrumental methods. The analysis of solvent mixand silver ions, and potentiometric and polarographic tures is very important in the preparation of film base. studies are made of oxidation-reduction systems and of The checking of specifications and assaying of raw reactions occurring in color and black-and-white photo- materials is another extensive and valuable use of anagraphic development. The mass spectrometer is used lytical chemistry. as &I analytical tool. Studies utifieing infrared specSPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS trometry and X-ray and electron diffraction methods Photographic research and production lead into many for the determination of the structure of organic and inorganic materials have been highlv s~ecializedareas of chemistrv and ~hvsics, manv of - " valuable. Physicochemical investigations of high polymers in- mhich have interesting oveGaps. For instance; revolve thermodynamic and statistical mechanical studies search in the photoconductance of silver halides and in of properties of polymer solutions and gels. Other the dielectric properties of phosphors involves investiphysicochemical research is done in connection with gation into the studies in the chemistry and physics of the problems of photographic theory. Such studies the solid state. The graphic arts field, vhich involves include the investigation of the properties and disper- photomechanical reproduction, requires investigation sions of silver halides, the photochemistry and the of processes by which pictures for papers and magazines mechanism of optical sensitizing of photographic emul- are reproduced from the original photographic record.
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chemical development of photoaraphic - . emulsions. ANALYTICAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
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Analytical chemistry, as a tool for quality control, has assumed an imuortant role. The chemical control problems encountered in the production of sensitized photographic goods are quite specific and are in many
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manv considerations of a chemical nature. Photogradhie chemistry and color photography have already been mentioned as areas of work where chemistry serves to advance photography, and there are other fields where the auolications of chemistrv are of uniclue interest. Research in photographic chemistry, for instance, has led to a high speed processing procedure
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which permits motion picture film to be processed for projection within a time range of a few minutes. This technique was of great value during the war and promises to assume an important role in photography. Chemistry, while important, cannot work aloqe to solve the many technical problems associated with the photographic industry, or t,o provide the entire basis for scientific advancement in the photographic field. The principles of physics as they relate to optics, electricity, electronics, colorimetry, spectrophotometry and spectroscopy, electronmicroscopy, X-rays and radiography, nucleonics, and engineering physics are of great importance to much of Kodak's research and manufacturing. Likel~ise,there are major problems involving chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and metallurgical engineering. Many of these fields of science and engineering are often teamed ~ ~ i chemistry or with one or more of themselves before an adequate solution to a problem is evolved. Not all of the applications of chemistry in the company are restricted solely to the problems of photography and photographic manufacturing. The Kesearch Laboratories in Rochester have undertaken the production and separdon of the isotopes of C13 and N15 in order to make these materials available for scientific research generally. The Tennessee Eastman Corporation a t Kingsport, Tennessee, an associated company, is and has been for a number of years, an important research and manufacturing organization. I t represents a t present the srcond largest manufact,uring division of the company, employs approximat,ely 8000 persons, and has become a major world producer of estron (man-made cellulose acetate yarn), cellulose acetate ~lastics.acetate dvestuffs., hvdroauinone. and " the many important Eastman Industrial Chemirals. Its growth during its short 25-year history from a small plant to produce alcohol for film manufacturing purposes to its present position in the chemical manufacturine field has been one of real im~ortance.and a growth mhich emphasizes how researci and development in chemistry and in chemical engineering can produce entirely new industries. Another interesting nonphotographic manufacturing, development, and research activity is conducted by the Distillation Products Industries, a division of the Eastman Kodak Company. This organization is engaged in the research and development of highvacuum techniques, and in the production of highvacuum equipment, vitamin concentrates, chemicals, and other products utilizing these techniques. Its origin, however, is another interesting ramification of chemical research. A group of research chemists engaged in studying film support problems found it necessary to develop more effective means to obtain reduced pressures for experimental work. This led them into research involving high-vacuum pumps and chambers, and the results of this research vroduced not only improved types of high-vacuum pumpsl but 'Iso vibmin concentrates and other products.
199 GENERAL ORGANIZATION
The principal activities associated 17-ith the research, development, and manufacture of photographic goods are centralized a t Rochest,er, New York. Here, the company operates three large photographic manufacturing plants and performs its important business, sales, advertising, and general management functions. The largest of these plants and the largest of all of Kodak's manufacturing organizations is the Kodak Park Works. Approximately 18,000 are employed at Kodak Park in the research, development, or manufacture of a wide range of photographic sensitized film and paper products, photographic and synthetic organic chemicals, acetate sheeting, and other chemical products sold by the company. These operations are spread over about 400 acres of ground, the plant area about a half mile wide by two and a quarter miles t being h long. The 10 miles of streets ~vithinKodak Park are paved and are constantly sprinkled to guard, not against dust which is unpleasant, but against dust that endangers perfect pictures. Elaborate equipment for washing and filtering air is necessary to protect the photographic materials from dirt. Many of Kodak Park's operations are highly specialized and are peculiar to t,he photographic industry. Conseqnently, a large amount. of the design and fabrication or construction of the buildings, machinery, and equipment required for the manufacture, t.est,ing,and processing of the product
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High Temperatu~eVacuum Furnace Manvfectvred by Distillation ~ ~ ~ ~ ~d ~e ~ d ~ i ~t i ~of~. the i ~~ ~~~t~~~ ~~ ~ . ~t ~ company. ~ d ~ k
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Rigidity of Gelatins Placed between Concentric Cylinder. in This Apparatus Is Measured by vibration at the Rmsonant Frequency. This Helps Dete~mineBeha~iorof the Gelatin i n Photographis Emulsions.
is performed within the plant. Kodak's other two Rochester manufacturing plants for photographic products, the Camera Works and the Hawk Eye Works, employ approximately 6000 additional persons for research, development, and production of such products as optical glass, lens components, special opticalmechanical equipment, cameras, projectors, darkroom equipment, and hnndreds of other items of photographic equipment and supplies. In addition to its Rochester plants, the company and its subsidiaries operate mannfacturing units in Tennessee, Massachusetts, and Illinois, and in Canada, England, France, Germany, and Australia. Stations for the processing of amateur motion picture film and amateur color film have also been established in a large number of other cities in the United States and in other countries throughout the world. Kodak employs about 42,000 in the United States; throughout the world this employment approximates 60,000.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
The young chemist upon his employment is usually not assigned to any formal training program, although he is prepared in different ways for the work which he will perform. In many departments, including the Research Laboratories, t,his is accomplished by his assibment to remlar duties on a definite iob under t,he guidance and supervision of experienced men. In other instances, where it may be necessary to familiarize the young chemist with photography or with certain of our unusual operations, special training programs have k e n designed for the purpose or are developed to satisfy the individual's particular requirements. A numhei of additionil training opportunities are available to many of the new employees. A series of general company lectures each year provides a background for understanding more fully the general operations, growth, and practices of the company, and the nature and use of the products which it manufactures. Special training courses and lecture and conference programs in the various plants and laboratories deal with plant policies, safety, sales principles, and snpervisory techniques. Instrnction in the basic and special branches of photography is provided certain Kodak people through regular classes conducted by a photographic training department. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
Promotion from within the company is a basic part of Kodak's industrial relations policy. Each individual has the opportunity, on the basis of demonstrated ability, to qualify for advancement to positions of increasing responsibility. Practically all major executives, many of whom came directly to Kodak from school, have spent a large part of their working lives with the company. Some are relatively young men, and today with increasing frequency young professionally trained persons are being promoted to supervisory positions and to major staff and management assignments. Kodak's comprehensive industrial relations program has undoubtedly contributed much to the success and prestige the company enjoys. Many of the industrial EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND TRAINING relations policies and benefit plans were pioneered by Opportunities for young chemists in the Eastman George Eastman himself. Programs providing for Kodak Company and its subsidiary companies are as life insurance, retirement annuities, total and permavaried as the applications of chemistry itself. The nent disability benefits, sickness allowances, vacation, initial assignment is usually in one of the many research and wage dividends have been established for many or development laboratories throughout the company, years. Together with careful production planning to or in the laboratory of one of the many production eliminate the effects on production of seasonal demand, departments. Generally speaking, most of the oppor- they have helped to establish pleasant and stable worktunit,ies are for young men who have just completed ing condit,ions which have long been an accepted fact their professional training in the field of chemistry, to Kodak people. I t is interesting to note that for although it is occasionally necessary under unusual every dollar paid for wages during 1948 the company circumstances to employ a chemist with industrial or spent twenty-three cents in addition for the welfare specialized research experience. This would be particu- of its working family as represented by these benefit larly true for advanced research studies in those areas programs. where the company has had only limited experience Important among those factors contributing to the with the result that an adequate background of training growth of the scientists, engineers, and other profesand preparation would not normally be found from sionally trained men a t Kodak is the company's puhlicawithin the organization. tion policy and its desire to encourageitsmen to partic-
APRIL, 1950
ipate in the activities of professional societies. Kodak's scientists and engineers may be seen a t practically all the major technical and scientific meetings, and their publications appear in many journals. The Research Laboratories publish a special Monthly Abstract Bulletin to summarize the current photographic literature and to report scientific progress of interest to the company. WHAT ABOUT THE FVITIRE
The photographic progress initiated by George Eastman approximately 70 years ago continues steadily. The increased scope of photography, derived from the development of new photographic applications in all walks of life, and an overwhelming increase in the use of
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photographic color products, are factors and forces which are bringing about changes in the photographic industry greater than any since the advent of the motion picture. These changes have been accompanied by a swift increase in the complexity of the operations and a correspondingly greater need for meu of unusual imagination, competence, and technical skill. It nil1 be the young men of tomorrow upon whom the company must depend to meet these demands and to provide for continued and future success of the organization. The photographic industry as never before offers a challenge to the best of our young men and opportunities for growth and development that are second to none.
