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Bioactive Constituents, Metabolites, and Functions
Egg White Ovotransferrin Shows Osteogenic Activity in Osteoblast Cells Nan Shang, and Jianping Wu J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00069 • Publication Date (Web): 05 Mar 2018 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on March 8, 2018
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Proliferation
Cell cycle
Alkaline Phosphatase
Ovotransferrin Bone formation Osteoblast cells
Type I collagen
Differentiation Bone resorption
Mineralization
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Osteoprotegerin RANKL
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Egg White Ovotransferrin Shows Osteogenic Activity in Osteoblast Cells
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Nan Shang, Jianping Wu*
6 7 8
Dept. of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta,
9
Edmonton, AB, Canada
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
* Corresponding Author: Dr. Jianping Wu, 4-10 Ag/For Centre, Edmonton, AB,
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Canada T6G 2P5. Phone (780) 492-6885, Fax (780) 492-4265, e-mail:
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[email protected] 20 21 22 23 24 25
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Abstract
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Ovotransferrin, the major protein in egg white, is a member of transferrin family. The
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objective of this study was to study the effects of ovotransferrin on cell proliferation,
29
differentiation, and osteoclastogenesis of bone osteoblast cells. Effect of
30
ovotransferrin (concentrations ranging from 1 to 1000 µg/mL) on the proliferation,
31
differentiation and mineralization of mouse osteoblast cells MC3T3-E1 was
32
determined by 5-Bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation assay, Western blot,
33
immunofluorescence and Alizarin-S red staining, respectively. Our results showed
34
that ovotransferrin
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differentiation (enhanced expression of alkaline phosphatase and type-I collagen), and
36
mineralization
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Furthermore, ovotransferrin could increase the expression of osteoprotegerin (OPG)
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while decrease the expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand
39
(RANKL), suggesting its role on inhibition of bone resorption. This study
40
demonstrated for the first time that ovotransferrin might promote bone formation
41
while prevent bone resorption, which might open up a new application of egg white
42
protein ovotransferrin as a functional ingredient in bone health management.
stimulated proliferation (enhanced BrdU incorporation),
(increased
calcium
deposits)
in
a
dose-dependent
manner.
43 44
Keywords: ovotransferrin, osteoblast, proliferation, differentiation, mineralization,
45
RANKL/OPG
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Introduction
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Osteoporosis, defined as a skeletal disorder, is characterized by an impairment of
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bone mass, strength, and microarchitecture, and is caused by an imbalanced bone
49
formation and bone resorption, which is regulated respectively by osteoblast and
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osteoclast.1 As a serious public health concern, osteoporosis affects over 200 million
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people worldwide, leading to severe and localized pain, increased bone fractures, and
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reduced height.2 Moreover, osteoporosis is also a major cause of morbidity and health
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expenditure in ageing populations.3 Currently, antiresorptive medications such as
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bisphosphonates, selective estrogen receptor modulators and hormones are the main
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pharmacological treatment options for osteoporosis.4 Teriparatide, a recombinant
56
fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH) has been used as an anabolic agent in
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osteoporosis treatment by stimulating the bone formation.5 Despite their great
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therapeutic value, these agents are limited in their ability to restore bone mass, and are
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associated with side effects such as nausea, irregular heartbeat, loose bowel
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movement, and even increased risk of cancer.6 Therefore, there is an increasing
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interest in using natural components as the alternatives for the prevention and
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treatment of osteoporosis.7
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Ovotransferrin, a 78 kDa iron-binding glycoprotein found in avian egg white and in
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avian serum, is a member of transferrin family.8 Egg ovotransferrin displays several
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bioactivities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulating activities.8
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Likewise, ovotransferrin is a component of innate immunity.9 In chicken
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macrophages, ovotransferrin was reported to stimulate the production of IL-6, nitrite
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and Matrix Metallo-proteinase, suggesting that ovotransferrin can modulate
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macrophage and heterophil function.9 More recently, oral administration of egg
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ovotransferrin reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines.10 Since inflammation is
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known to play an important role in bone metabolism,11 ovotransferrin may have
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beneficial effects on bone health. Previous study also suggested that the expression
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levels of ovotransferrin and its receptor were increased during initial stages of bone
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formation in developing chick embryo,12 further indicating its significant role on
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cartilage and bone growth. Lactoferrin, another member of transferrin family, was
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reported to increase osteoblast activity while decrease osteoclast activity in vitro.7
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Injection of lactoferrin increases bone growth in adult male mice.3,7 Guo et al.13
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further proved that orally administrated lactoferrin increases bone mineral density and
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mechanical strength on ovariectomized-induced osteoporosis. In this research, we
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investigated the effects of ovotransferrin on cell proliferation, differentiation, and
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osteoclastogenesis of bone osteoblast cell MC3T3-E1, a widely used cell model in
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osteoblastic activity study.
83 84
Materials and methods
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Reagents
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Ovotransferrin (Conalbumin from chicken egg white, at a purity of 98%) and
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Alizarin-S red stain were bought from Sigma Chemicals Co (St Louis, MO, USA). α-
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minimum essential medium (α-MEM) and Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) were obtained
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from Gibco/Invitrogen (Carlsbad, CA, USA). AlamarBlue cell viability reagent and
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BrdU labeling reagent were bought from ThermoFisher Scientific Inc. (Waltham,
91
MA, USA). Propidium iodide flow cytometry kit was bought from Abcam plc.
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(Toronto, ON, Canada). Collagen I alpha antibody was bought from Novus Biological
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Canada ULC (Oakville, ON, Canada). Hoechst 33342 (Trihydrochloride), rabbit anti-
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mouse IgG (H+L) secondary antibody, and goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L) secondary
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antibody were bought from Molecular Probes (Waltham, MA, USA). BrdU mouse
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antibody was bought from Cell Signaling Technology Inc. (Danvers, MA, USA).
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Triton-X-100 was from VWR International (West Chester, PA, USA). Goat anti-
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rabbit and donkey anti-mouse fluorochrome-conjugated secondary antibodies were
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purchased from Licor Biosciences (Lincoln, NB, USA).
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Cell Culture
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The murine osteoblastic cell line MC3T3-E1 (subclone 4, ATCC CRL-2593) was
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purchased from ATCC (Manassas, VA, USA) and cultured with ATCC suggested
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protocol. Cells were cultured in α-MEM supplemented with 10% FBS and penicillin-
104
streptomycin in an incubator under 95% air and 5% CO2. Cells were subcultured
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using 0.25% trypsin every 2 to 3 days. All experiments were performed on 80-90%
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confluent cells grown in tissue culture grade plastic 96 or 48 well plates. To examine
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the activity of egg white ovotransferrin, the cells were incubated with different
108
concentrations of ovotransferrin or 1000 µg/mL lactoferrin (the positive control) for
109
different time periods prior to BrdU incorporation, western blotting, and
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immunofluorescence.
111
BrdU incorporation assay
112
The BrdU incorporation assay was performed similar to our previous studies.14 The
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cells were seeded on 48 well tissue culture plates at a concentration of 1×104
114
cell/well, and incubated in α-MEM with 10% FBS. After 4 h of incubation, the
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medium was changed and different concentrations of ovotransferrin were added.
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Lactoferrin was also used as a positive control. Following 24 h of incubation, the cells
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were washed with PBS and placed in fresh α-MEM with 1% FBS, containing 1%
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bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) for 1 h. The cells were then fixed in 70% ethanol for 20
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min, treated with 1N hydrochloric acid (HCl) for 20 min to antigen exposure, then
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permeabilized with 0.1% Triton-X-100 in phosphate buffered saline for 5 min and
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blocked in 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in phosphate buffered saline for 60 min,
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and finally incubated with mouse monoclonal antibody against BrdU (1:1000) at 4
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°C. All the steps except addition of primary antibody were performed at room
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temperature. Following overnight incubation with the primary antibody, the cells
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were treated with anti-mouse secondary antibody for 30 min in the dark. Nuclei were
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stained with the Hoechst33342 nuclear dye. Cells were visualized under an Olympus
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IX81 fluorescent microscope. For each data point, 3 random fields were chosen. The
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percentage of nuclei positive for BrdU staining was noted in each field and the mean
129
calculated.
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Cell cycle analysis
131
Cell cycle distribution was analyzed by measuring DNA content using flow cytometer
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(FACS Canto II, BD Bioscience, CA) according to the manufactory instruction of
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propidium iodide flow cytometry kit. The cells were seeded on 6 well tissue culture
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plates at a concentration of 1×104 cells/well, and incubated in α-MEM with 10% FBS
135
until confluence. After being treated with different concentrations of ovotransferrin or
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1000 µg/mL lactoferrin for 24 h the adherent cells were washed once with PBS, then
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trypsinized, and centrifuged at 500 g for 5 min. The cell pellets collected were gently
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suspended in 400 µL PBS, slowly added 800 µL ice-cold 100% ethanol at 4 °C and
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mixed for at least 2 h. After centrifugation at 500 g for 5 min, the cell pellets were
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incubated with 200 µL staining solution (9.45 mL PBS containing 500 µL 20-fold
141
diluted propidium iodide stock solution and 50 µL 200×RNase) at 37 °C in the dark
142
for 30 min prior to the measurement.
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Immunofluorescence
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The immunofluorescence studies were performed similar to our previous studies.14
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Briefly, cells were fixed in 4% formalin, permeabilized with 0.1% Triton-X-100 in
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PBS and immunostained overnight with a rabbit polyclonal antibody against type I
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collagen. Cells were treated with Alexa Fluor546 (red) conjugated goat anti-rabbit
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secondary antibody for 30 min in the dark. Nuclei were stained with the
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Hoechst33342 nuclear dye (1:10000) for 10 min. After washing to remove unbound
150
antibody/dye, the immunostained cells were observed under an Olympus IX81
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fluorescence microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). Images were obtained using
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Metamorph imaging software (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Mean
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fluorescence intensity was calculated from the intensity of the red fluorescent signal
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(determined by Adobe Photoshop Elements 2.0 software; Adobe Systems Inc., San
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Jose, CA, USA) from 3 randomly selected fields per group.
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Western blot
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The cells were seeded on 48 well tissue culture plates at a concentration of 1×104
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cells/well, and incubated in α-MEM with 10% FBS. The cells were treated with
159
different concentrations of ovotransferrin or 1000 µg/mL lactoferrin for 72 h. After
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incubation, the culture medium was removed and the cells lysed in boiling hot
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Laemmle’s buffer containing 50 µM dithiothreitol (DTT) and 0.2% Triton-X-100 to
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prepare samples for western blot as described previously.14 These cell lysates were
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run in SDS-PAGE, blotted to nitrocellulose membranes and immunoblotted with
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antibodies against ALP, RANKL, OPG and the loading control α-tubulin. Anti-
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tubulin was used at 0.4 µg/mL, while the others were used at 1 µg/mL. The protein
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bands were detected by a Licor Odyssey BioImager and quantified by densitometry
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using corresponding software (Licor Biosciences, Lincoln, NB, US). Each band of
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ALP, RANKL and OPG was normalized to its corresponding band of loading control.
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Cell lysates from untreated cells were loaded onto every gel. The results were
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expressed as percentage of the corresponding untreated control.
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Mineralization
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The mineralization studies were performed similar to previous studies.15 The degree
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of mineralization was determined in the 12-well plates using Alizarin Red staining.
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Cells were incubated with different concentrations of ovotransferrin for 10 days. The
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medium was removed and cells were rinsed twice with PBS. The cells were fixed
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with ice-cold 70% (v/v) ethanol for 1 h. The ethanol was removed by aspiration and
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cells were washed twice with Milli-Q water. The cells were then stained with 1%
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(w/v) Alizarin-S Red in Milli-Q (pH 4.2) for 10 min at room temperature. After
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washing with Milli-Q water, the samples were observed under light and pictures were
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photographed.
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Statistics
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All data are presented as mean±SEM (standard error of mean) of between 4 and 7
183
independent experiments. Data were analyzed using One Way analysis of variance
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(ANOVA) with Dunnett’s post-hoc test for comparisons to control. The PRISM 6
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statistical software (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA) was used for the analyses.
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P< 0.05 was considered significant.
187 188
Results
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Ovotransferrin promotes cell proliferation of osteoblasts
190
Ovotransferrin did not show cytotoxicity to osteoblasts at concentrations up to 1000
191
µg/mL (data not shown). To investigate the effect of ovotransferrin on cell
192
proliferation, osteoblasts were incubated with thymidine analog BrdU, and the
193
incorporation of BrdU into newly synthesized DNA was detected by fluorescence
194
microscopy. As shown in Fig. 1, the percentage of BrdU positive cells significantly
195
increased after adding lactoferrin (positive control, 1000 µg/mL) or ovotransferrin at
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concentrations of 100 µg/mL and 1000 µg/mL. At the concentration of ovotransferrin
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(1000 µg/mL), the percentage of BrdU-incorporated cells increased to 18.3±0.7%,
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which was twofold increment of the untreated group (10.4±1.2%). These results
199
indicated that ovotransferrin could promote osteoblast proliferation, suggesting the
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potential role of ovotransferrin as an osteoinductive factor in bone formation.
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Ovotransferrin inhibits the G0/G1 arrest but promotes S and G2/M arrest
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To determine whether the promotion of cell proliferation can be attributed to cell
203
cycle arrest, cell nuclei were stained with propidium iodide and cell cycle was
204
analyzed by flow cytometry. As shown in Fig. 2, the percentage of cells in G0/G1
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phase decreased dose-dependently in the ovotransferrin groups, while increased in the
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lactoferrin group. At the concentration of 1000 µg/mL ovotransferrin, the percentage
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of cells in the G0/G1 phase decreased significantly to 74.3±0.6%, as compared to
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86.4±0.4% in the untreated group and 87.6±3.0% in the lactoferrin group. On the
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contrary to G0/G1 phase, the percentage of cells in S phase increased in the
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ovotransferrin groups while decreased in lactoferrin group; the highest percentage
211
was shown at 100 µg/mL ovotransferrin treatment instead of 1000 µg/mL
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ovotransferrin group. The percentage of cells in the S phase was increased
213
significantly to 15.9±0.3% in 100 µg/mL ovotransferrin treatment compared to
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6.6±0.2% in the untreated group and 4.8±0.3% in the lactoferrin group.
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Ovotransferrin increases expression of type I collagen in osteoblasts
216
Type I collagen expressed by osteoblasts play an important role as the structural
217
component in bone formation. A high level of type I collagen expression,
218
biosynthesis, and secretion is a typical indicator of osteoblasts differentiation. Thus,
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the expression of type I collagen was also examined in this study to investigate the
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effect of ovotransferrin on cell differentiation. As shown in Fig. 3, the expression of
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type I collagen increased after treatment with lactoferrin (positive control) and
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ovotransferrin; at a concentration of 100 µg/mL ovotransferrin, type I collagen
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showed 1.5-fold increase compared with the untreated group. These results suggested
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that ovotransferrin could stimulate the expression of bone matrix component type I
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collagen, supporting further a beneficial role of ovotransferrin on promoting cell
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differentiation.
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Ovotransferrin promotes expression of ALP in osteoblasts
228
Differentiation of osteoblast precursor to postmitotic matrix-producing osteoblasts is
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one of the most important stages in bone formation. Determination of alkaline
230
phosphatase (ALP) expression is a widely used indicator for both osteoblast
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differentiation and bone formation. As shown in Fig. 4, the expression of ALP was
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significantly increased after treatment with lactoferrin (positive control) and
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ovotransferrin (100 µg/mL and 1000 µg/mL) for 72 h. Interestingly, the maximal
234
stimulation was observed at 100 µg/mL, not at the concentration of 1000 µg/mL. The
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expression level of ALP increased to 149.3±21.5% when treated with 100 µg/mL
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ovotransferrin, compared to 138.3±13.7% for 1000 µg/mL treatment. Our results
237
suggested ovotransferrin could promote ALP expression when treated with
238
ovotransferrin, further supporting the ability of ovotransferrin on stimulating
239
osteoblast differentiation.
240
Ovotransferrin promotes mineralization of osteoblasts
241
Mineralization is the last while the most important step of osteoblast differentiation
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and is frequently used as a marker to characterize bone formation. To examine the
243
effect of ovotransferrin on mineralization in osteoblasts, MC3T3-E1 cells were
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incubated with ovotransferrin for 5 days, 10 days, 15 days and 20 days, and
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mineralization assay was carried out using Alizarin red S staining. The magnitude of
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the absorbance for the developed color is proportional to the quantity of calcium
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deposit, which is a direct indication of cell mineralization. As shown in Fig. 5, at
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increasing incubation time, the calcium deposits were increased in MC3T3-E1 in all
249
groups. In the first 5 days, there was no significant difference between untreated
250
group and ovotransferrin treatment. At 10 days, a significantly increase of absorbance
251
was observed at 1000 µg/mL ovotransferrin group, indicating ovotransferrin
252
stimulated the calcium nodules and deposits in osteoblasts. At 20 days, the
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absorbance was significantly increased at both 100 µg/mL and 1000 µg/mL
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ovotransferrin groups as compared with the untreated group. These results indicated
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that ovotransferrin could promote the calcium deposit and calcium nodules
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production, suggesting that ovotransferrin could enhance mineralization.
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Ovotransferrin inhibits expression of RANKL in osteoblasts
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Besides the effect on bone formation, we also investigated the effect of ovotransferrin
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on bone resorption. RANKL, produced by osteoblasts, acts as a chemoattractant to
260
initiate the osteoclastogenesis and contributes to osteoclast differentiation; therefore
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expression of RANKL is critical in regulating osteoclasts formation and bone
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resorption.16 As shown in Fig. 6, expression of RANKL decreased after treated with
263
lactoferrin (positive control) and ovotransferrin in a dose-dependent manner. The
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expression of RANKL was significantly decreased to 60.3±1.9% (100 µg/mL
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ovotransferrin), or to 55.4±8.6% (1000 µg/mL ovotransferrin), or to 58.8±2.1%
266
(lactoferrin). These results indicated that ovotransferrin could inhibit the expression of
267
RANKL, suggesting its potential role on preventing osteoclastogenesis.
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Ovotransferrin promotes expression of OPG in osteoblasts
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In addition to RANKL, osteoblasts also release OPG to counteract the function of
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RANKL and to prevent osteoclast-mediated bone resorption.16 Thus, to confirm the
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effect of ovotransferrin on preventing bone resorption, expression of OPG was also
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determined by western blot. As shown in Fig. 7, the expression of OPG was
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increasing in a dose-dependent manner, showing an 1.5-fold increase at 1000 µg/mL
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ovotransferrin treatment, compared with the untreated group. These results suggested
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that ovotransferrin could also promote the expression of OPG, which further
276
supported the protective role of ovotransferrin on preventing osteoclast-induced bone
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resorption.
278 279
Discussion
280
Although a potential positive role of high-quality food protein intake on bone health
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has been suggested,17 effect of egg proteins has not been studied. In addition to their
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excellent essential amino acid profile and high digestibility, egg proteins are known to
283
impart a wide range of physiological benefits including antimicrobial, anticancer,
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antioxidant and immunomodulation activities.18 In this study, we showed for the first
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time that ovotransferrin could directly stimulate osteoblasts proliferation and
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differentiation as an osteogenic agent. In addition, ovotransferrin also contributes to
287
inhibit osteoclastogenesis. The effects of ovotransferrin on both proliferation and
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differentiation of osteoblasts are profound, being comparable to lactoferrin, a well-
289
accepted nutraceutical for bone formation. Lactoferrin, extracted from milk belonging
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to transferrin family, is one of the most well studied bioactive proteins that acts as a
291
promoter of osteoblasts growth and increases calvarial formation in vivo.3 Some
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reports claimed that the effects of lactoferrin on proliferation and survival of
293
osteoblasts even exceed other established anabolic factors such as transforming
294
growth factor-β, parathyroid hormone (PTH), amylin, and insulin.19 In this study, we
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showed that ovotransferrin promoted osteoblast proliferation in a dose-depend
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manner, and reached significance at concentrations of 100 and 1000 µg/mL; in
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comparison, lactoferrin showed the same trend and the same magnitude.7 In general,
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transferrin family is recognized to have stimulatory effects on proliferation. In
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addition to the stimulation effects on osteoblasts, lactoferrin was also reported to
300
induce the growth and proliferation of human enterocytes,20 human endometrial
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stromal cells 21 and human lymphoblastic T cells 22. Laskey et al. 23 gave the evidence
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that transferrin supported cell proliferation by supplying iron for DNA synthesis. And
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then transferrin has been studied in different cell lines and showed simulative effects
304
on lymphoblast cells,23 osteoblast cells,24 and oligodendrocytes progenitor cells25 with
305
different magnitude, while showed suppression effects on human hepatoma cells.26
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Richie et al.27 reported that human milk-derived lactoferrin inhibited the mitogen and
307
alloantigen induced human lymphocytes proliferation. Zhang, Lima, & Rodrigues28
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also described the potential anticancer activity of lactoferrin by inhibiting the growth
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of breast cancer cells. Similarly, ovotransferrin has been successfully used in
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inhibiting the proliferative response of mouse spleen lymphocytes stimulated by
311
lipopolysaccharide and phytohemagglutinin.29 Mizunoya et al.
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promoting activity of several egg white proteins in C2C12 myoblast cell line and
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observed that ovalbumin and ovomucoid could stimulate the proliferation of
314
myoblasts while ovotransferrin decreased cell proliferation. Therefore, it seems that
315
the effect of ovotransferrin on cell proliferation as well as the sensitivity of the cells to
316
respond to ovotransferrin vary depending on the cell types.
317
Cell growth to high density often reflects loss of cell cycle control.31 Thus, cell cycle
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analysis was performed to investigate the effect of ovotransferrin on cell cycle
319
control. Treatment of osteoblasts with ovotransferrin showed controlled cell cycle,
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stimulated more cells at the S phase but less at G0/G1 phase, indicating active DNA
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studied the growth
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synthesis and cell proliferation, which is consistent with BrdU incorporation results.
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In addition to osteoblasts,32 controlled cell cycle also occurs in adipocytes,33, 34 as well
323
as mesenchymal cells.35 Cell cycle progression has been described as an important
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mechanism contributing to bone cell activity. Glucocorticoids, a widely used
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immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory drug, has been reported to inhibit bone
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formation by inhibiting cell cycle progression in osteoblasts and finally lead to
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osteoporosis and increased fracture risk in chronic glucocorticoid-treated patients.31, 32
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San Martin et al.36 proposed that deregulation of cell cycle may contribute to the
329
pathogenesis of osteosarcoma. Several osteogenic compounds have also been reported
330
to stimulate cell proliferation through affecting cell cycle. Cao et al.
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icarii, a prenyl flavonoid from Epimedium considered as a strong candidate used in
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bone tissue engineering, increased the percentage of S phase cell and decreased G1
333
phase in MC3T3-E1 cells. Polygonum amplexicaule var. sinense, a traditional herb,
334
also showed simulative effects on osteoblasts by affecting cell cycle progression.38
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The osteoinductive activity of ovotransferrin is also showed by its capacity to
336
substantially promote osteoblast differentiation. The progress of bone formation was
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classified into three stages: preosteoblast recruitment characterized by cell
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proliferation and type I collagen secretion, followed by osteoblast precursor
339
differentiation into postmitotic matrix-producing osteoblasts accompanied with
340
downregulated replication, and osteoid mineralization by terminally differentiated
341
osteoblasts associated with increased extracellular matrix accumulation and ALP
342
expression and activity.39, 40 As the most abundant protein among all bone matrixes,
343
type I collagen is conductive to mineral deposition and also binds to non-collagenous
344
matrix proteins to initiate and regulate mineralization.41 Also, ALP is involved in
345
bone matrix formation before crystallization of the calcium and phosphate ions40 and
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reported that
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may play a role in transport of phosphate.42 Therefore, type I collagen and ALP are
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considered as the most important biomarkers to study osteoblastic activity.
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Lactoferrin was reported to enhance osteoblast differentiation by increasing the
349
expression and activity of type I collagen and ALP in both mouse osteoblasts
350
MC3T3-E1 and human osteoblast-like cells SaOS-2.7, 43 Calcium phosphates such as
351
α-tricalcium phosphate (α-TCP) and tera-calcium phosphate (TetCP) have been
352
clinically applied as components of bone-substitutes materials. Ehara et al. 41 reported
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that α-TCP and TetCP stimulated MC3T3-E1 differentiation through increasing ALP
354
activity and type I collagen expression. In this study, ovotransferrin promoted both
355
type I collagen and ALP expression, respectively, in the early and late phases,
356
suggesting that, in addition to promoting matrixes production and osteoblasts
357
differentiation in the early stage, it also affected late phase of calcification of bone
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matrix.
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Proteins from transferrin family are suggested to play an important role in cell
360
differentiation. Lactoferrin was reported to stimulate cell differentiation not only in
361
osteoblasts, but also other cell lines such as stromal cells ST2,7 mesenchymal cells,44
362
and human adipose stem cells.45 Macedo et al.
363
transferrin in T lymphocyte differentiation with hypotransferrinaemic mice and found
364
transferrin itself or a pathway triggered by the interaction of transferrin with its
365
receptor is crucial for normal early T-cell differentiation. Paez et al.
366
human transferrin in two oligodendroglial cell lines and found transferrin is required
367
for a more complete maturation of oligodendroglia.
368
As the most direct evidence of calcium deposit capability, mineralization was also
369
investigated to evaluate the effect of ovotransferrin on bone formation. Ovotransferrin
370
was found to increase bone-like tissue formation by MC3T3-E1 cells in a dose-
46
studied the possible involvement of
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overexpressed
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dependent manner. This might be, in part, due to the increased cell activity and
372
increased production of extra-cellular matrix like type I collagen or other non-
373
collagenous proteins. The other possible reason for the enhanced formation of
374
calcified tissue is that ovotransferrin may function as suppliers of original materials
375
(e.g. amino acids) for bone formation. Ehara et al.
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function of α-TCP and TetCP as calcium and phosphate materials for bone formation.
377
Above all, ovotransferrin acts to expand the pool of osteoblasts by exerting mitogenic
378
effects as well as driving differentiation of precursors to produce more mature
379
osteoblastic phenotypes capable of promoting bone matrix deposition and
380
mineralization. This anabolic potency suggests that ovotransferrin or its analogs
381
should be explored as therapies for osteoporosis that can restore skeletal strength
382
because most current interventions merely arrest further structural decline.
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Bone mass is regulated by continuous remodeling, which is based on a delicate
384
balance between osteoblastic bone formation and osteoclastic bone resorption. The
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maturation and activation of osteoclasts is dependent on the RANK/RANKL/OPG
386
system. Osteoblasts are the primary source of receptor activator of nuclear factor κB
387
ligand (RANKL), which stimulates osteoclast differentiation and activates bone
388
resorption after binding to RANK on osteoprogenitor cells.16 Thus, the osteoblastic
389
bone resorption depends on a delicate balance between the expression of RANKL and
390
OPG. Ovotransferrin inhibited RANKL expression while promoted OPG expression
391
in osteoblasts, indicating its inhibitory effect on bone resorption. Bone resorption
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prevention was also reported for milk protein,48 soybean protein and soybean
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isoflavone.49 Lactoferrin reduced bone-resorbing activity was due to inhibited
394
RANKL expression while promoted OPG expression.48 Some drugs, like denosumab,
395
showed prevention of bone resorption by inhibiting RANKL expression as well.50
41
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Besides the regulation of RANK/RANKL/OPG system, ovotransferrin was shown
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anti-inflammatory activity.9 Given the inflammatory nature of osteoporotic condition,
398
ovotransferrin may play a role in counterbalancing the inflammation-induced bone
399
resorption. The anti-inflammatory property of ovotransferrin may complement with
400
its osteogenic effect on bone cells.
401
In conclusion, this study demonstrated for the first time that the egg white protein
402
ovotransferrin could function as an osteogenic agent by stimulated proliferation and
403
differentiation of osteoblasts as well as inhibited osteoclastogenesis. These findings
404
suggested an important role of ovotransferrin in mediating bone remodeling and
405
rebuilding the balance between bone formation and resorption. Although further
406
research is warranted to test its in vivo efficacy, ovotransferrin shows the potential as
407
a complementary therapeutic target for alleviation of bone disorders such as
408
osteoporosis as well as an anabolic agent for promotion of bone repair.
409 410
Abbreviations Used
411
BrdU, 5-Bromo-2-deoxyuridine; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; OPG, osteoprotegerin;
412
RANKL, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand; α-MEM, α-Minimum
413
Essential Medium; DTT, dithiothreitol; FBS, fetal bovine serum; PBS, phosphate
414
buffered saline; PI, propidium iodide;
415 416
Acknowledgements
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This research was funded by grants from Egg Farmers of Canada and Natural
418
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). The funders had no
419
role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or
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preparation of the manuscript.
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Figure captions
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Fig. 1 Effects of egg white ovotransferrin on cell proliferation in osteoblast cell
570
MC3T3-E1
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MC3T3-E1 cells were seeded into 48-well plate for 4 h and treated with 1000 µg/mL
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lactoferrin or different concentrations (1000, 100, 10, and 1 µg/mL) of ovotransferrin
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for 24 h prior to adding BrdU reagent, fixed, permeabilized and immunostained. Cell
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nuclei were counter-stained with Hoechst33342 dye. Percentage of BrdU(+) nuclei
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were counted in 3 random fields per group and their mean value determined. Data are
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mean±SEM from 4-6 independent experiments. *, ** and *** indicate p