Elevated Accumulation of Parabens and their ... - ACS Publications

Sep 17, 2015 - Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, School of Agriculture Science, Oregon State ... weight [wet wt]) in the livers of bottlenose dolp...
1 downloads 0 Views 868KB Size
Subscriber access provided by CMU Libraries - http://library.cmich.edu

Article

Elevated Accumulation of Parabens and their Metabolites in Marine Mammals from the United States Coastal Waters Jingchuan Xue, Nozomi Sasaki, Madhavan Elangovan, Guthrie Diamond, and Kurunthachalam Kannan Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • Publication Date (Web): 17 Sep 2015 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on September 22, 2015

Just Accepted “Just Accepted” manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication. They are posted online prior to technical editing, formatting for publication and author proofing. The American Chemical Society provides “Just Accepted” as a free service to the research community to expedite the dissemination of scientific material as soon as possible after acceptance. “Just Accepted” manuscripts appear in full in PDF format accompanied by an HTML abstract. “Just Accepted” manuscripts have been fully peer reviewed, but should not be considered the official version of record. They are accessible to all readers and citable by the Digital Object Identifier (DOI®). “Just Accepted” is an optional service offered to authors. Therefore, the “Just Accepted” Web site may not include all articles that will be published in the journal. After a manuscript is technically edited and formatted, it will be removed from the “Just Accepted” Web site and published as an ASAP article. Note that technical editing may introduce minor changes to the manuscript text and/or graphics which could affect content, and all legal disclaimers and ethical guidelines that apply to the journal pertain. ACS cannot be held responsible for errors or consequences arising from the use of information contained in these “Just Accepted” manuscripts.

Environmental Science & Technology is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Published by American Chemical Society. Copyright © American Chemical Society. However, no copyright claim is made to original U.S. Government works, or works produced by employees of any Commonwealth realm Crown government in the course of their duties.

Page 1 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

1

Elevated Accumulation of Parabens and their Metabolites in Marine

2

Mammals from the United States Coastal Waters

3 4 5

Jingchuan Xue1, Nozomi Sasaki2, Madhavan Elangovan1, Guthrie Diamond1, Kurunthachalam Kannan1,3,*

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

1

Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY 12201, United States 2

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, School of Agriculture Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States 3

Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Experimental Biochemistry Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

*Corresponding author: K. Kannan Wadsworth Center Empire State Plaza, P.O. Box 509 Albany, NY 12201-0509 Tel: +1-518-474-0015 Fax: +1-518-473-2895 E-mail: [email protected]

Submission to: ES&T

29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

36

Abstract: The widespread exposure of humans to parabens present in personal care products

37

is well known. Nevertheless, little is known about the accumulation of parabens in marine

38

organisms. In this study, six parabens and four common metabolites of parabens were

39

measured in 121 tissue samples from eight species of marine mammals collected along the

40

coastal waters of Florida, California, Washington, and Alaska. Methyl paraben (MeP) was the

41

predominant compound found in the majority of the marine mammal tissues analyzed, and

42

the highest concentration found was 865 ng/g (wet weight [wet wt]) in the livers of bottlenose

43

dolphins from Sarasota Bay, FL. 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HB) was the predominant

44

paraben metabolite found in all tissue samples. The measured concentrations of 4-HB were

45

on the order of hundreds to thousands of ng/g tissue, and these values are some of the highest

46

ever reported in the literature. MeP and 4-HB concentrations showed a significant positive

47

correlation (p < 0.05), which suggested a common source of exposure to these compounds in

48

marine mammals. Trace concentrations of MeP and 4-HB were found in the livers of polar

49

bears from the Chuckchi Sea and Beaufort Sea, which suggested widespread distribution of

50

MeP and 4-HB in the oceanic environment.

51 52

Key words: parabens; MeP; 4-HB; marine mammals; sea otter; dolphin; liver

53 54

2

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 2 of 28

Page 3 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

55

Introduction

56

The esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (hereafter referred to as parabens) are a class of

57

chemicals that include methyl-paraben (MeP), ethyl-paraben (EtP), propyl-paraben (PrP),

58

butyl-paraben (BuP), heptyl-paraben (HeP), and benzyl-paraben (BzP). As the most

59

commonly employed preservatives, parabens are used in processed foods, cosmetics, and

60

pharmaceuticals.1-3 MeP and PrP are the most widely used parabens and are often used in

61

combination due to their synergistic antimicrobial action. P-hydroxybenzoic acid

62

(4-hydroxybenzoic acid [4-HB]) is the major metabolite of several parabens in both animals

63

and

64

(3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid [3,4-DHB]), methyl protocatechuate (OH-MeP), and ethyl

65

protocatechuate (OH-EtP).8

humans.1,

4-7

Other

metabolites

of

parabens

include

protocatechuate

66

Concern over the safety of parabens was triggered by a study that showed an

67

association between the incidence of breast cancer and the use of cosmetics that contain

68

parabens.9 Although the debate continues,10,11 several studies have shown that parabens and

69

their metabolites possess estrogenic activity. 12,13 Parabens were also reported to exert adverse

70

effects on male reproductive system in rats.14

71

Several studies have reported the occurrence of parabens and their metabolites in

72

human specimens, such as urine and plasma.15-20 Parabens were recently found in human

73

adipose tissue, with 4-HB found at concentrations of up to 17,400 ng/g.21 Accumulation of

74

parabens and their metabolites in human adipose tissue provided new insights into their

75

bioaccumulation potential. Little is known on the occurrence and accumulation of parabens

76

and their metabolites in wildlife, especially in marine organisms. Parabens are metabolized to

3

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

77

4-HB by esterases present in the intestine and liver,22 and 4-HB is expected to concentrate in

78

the livers of marine mammals. The objective of this study was to investigate the

79

accumulation of parabens and their metabolites, for the first time, in the tissues of marine

80

mammals collected from the coastal and open ocean waters of the United States.

81 82

Materials and Methods

83

Standards and Reagents

84

Analytical standards of MeP (~98%), BuP (~98%), and 4-HB (~98%) were purchased from

85

Cambridge Isotope Laboratories (Andover, MA, USA). 3,4-DHB (≥97%), OH-MeP (~97%),

86

and OH-EtP (~97%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). 13C6-4-HB

87

was purchased from Cambridge Isotope Laboratories (Andover, MA, USA). Analytical

88

standards of EtP, PrP, BzP, and HeP were purchased from AccuStandard Inc. (New Haven, CT,

89

USA). D4-HeP and D4-BzP were obtained from C/D/N Isotopes Inc (Pointe-Claire, Quebec,

90

Canada). Mixed solutions of 13C6-MeP and 13C6-BuP were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St.

91

Louis, MO, USA). The stock solutions of target analytes and internal standards (ISs) were

92

prepared at 1 mg/mL in methanol and stored at -20° C until use. The chemical structures of

93

the target analytes and ISs are shown in Table S1. Methanol (HPLC grade), acetone (ACS

94

grade), and acetonitrile (ACS grade) were purchased from Mallinckrodt Baker (Phillipsburg,

95

NJ, USA). Milli-Q water was purified by an ultrapure water system (Barnstead International;

96

Dubuque, IA, USA).

97 98

Sample Collection

4

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 4 of 28

Page 5 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

99

A total of 121 tissue samples from eight species of marine mammals were analyzed in this

100

study. The tissue samples were collected as part of our previous investigations on

101

bioaccumulation of chemical contaminants in marine mammals, as reported elsewhere.23-25

102

The marine mammals analyzed were pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps), clymene

103

dolphin (Stenella clymene), rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), striped dolphin

104

(Stenella coeruleoalba), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), southern sea otter (Enhydra

105

lutris nereis), northern sea otter (Enhydra lutris kenyoni), and polar bear (Ursus maritimus),

106

from the coastal waters of Florida, California, Washington, and Alaska. Details of sample

107

collection have been described elsewhere.23-25 Briefly, tissues of marine mammals had been

108

obtained from federal or state agencies or university laboratories. Livers and the blubber of

109

cetaceans were collected by Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, from dolphins stranded

110

along the Florida coast. Livers, kidneys, and brains of sea otters from California, Washington,

111

and Alaska were collected through a stranding network coordinated by the U.S. Fish and

112

Wildlife Service, with the cooperation of other state and federal agencies, and were obtained

113

from the National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI. Livers of polar bears from Alaska

114

were obtained from the native subsistence hunters and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in

115

Anchorage, AK. Information regarding collection date, age, sex, and the cause of death were

116

recorded, when available. All samples were collected from 1994 to 2004. Generally, tissues

117

were collected from the carcasses at the time of necropsy and were wrapped in aluminum foil,

118

placed in airtight plastic bags, and frozen immediately at -20° C until analysis. Sampling

119

locations of different species are shown in Figure 1.

120

5

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

Page 6 of 28

121

Sample Preparation

122

Parabens are present in many cosmetic products, and contamination can arise during necropsy,

123

storage, and analysis. The surface of each tissue sample was removed with clean scissors and

124

tweezers, and only the inner portion of the tissue from each sample was used for analysis.

125

Extraction and purification procedures were similar to those previously reported for human

126

adipose tissue samples, with minor modifications.26 Briefly, 200 to 300 milligrams of tissue

127

were accurately weighed and spiked with 50 ng of IS mixture (13C6-MeP,

128

d4-BzP, and 13C6-4-HB). After equilibration for 30 min at room temperature, 5 mL of acetone

129

were added to the sample. The mixture was homogenized in a mortar and then transferred to a

130

15 mL polypropylene (PP) tube by washing with 2 mL of mixture of methanol and

131

acetonitrile (1:1, v/v). The combined extracts were shaken in an oscillator shaker for 60 min

132

and then centrifuged at 5000 x g for 5 min (Eppendorf Centrifuge 5804, Hamburg, Germany).

133

The supernatant was then transferred to a new PP tube, and the mixture was concentrated to

134

near dryness under a gentle nitrogen stream. One milliliter of a mixture of methanol and

135

acetonitrile (1:1, v/v) was added, and an ultra-low temperature (-20° C) incubation was

136

employed to separate lipids from the organic solvent layer. After storage at 20° C for 30 min

137

and immediate centrifugation at 5000 x g for 5 min, the supernatant was transferred into a

138

vial for analysis.

13

C6-BuP, d4-HeP,

139 140

Instrumental Analysis

141

Chromatographic separation was carried out using an Agilent 1100 Series HPLC system

142

(Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA). Identification and quantification of target

6

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 7 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

143

analytes was performed with an Applied Biosystems API 2000 electrospray triple quadrupole

144

mass spectrometer (ESI-MS/MS; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). A Zorbax

145

SB-Aq (150 mm × 2.1 mm, 3.5 µm) column, serially connected to a Javelin guard column

146

(Betasil C18, 20 mm × 2.1 mm, 5 µm), was used for the separation. The injection volume

147

was 10 µL, and the mobile phase comprised methanol (A) and Milli-Q water that contained

148

0.4% (v/v) acetic acid (B). The target compounds were separated by gradient elution at a flow

149

rate of 300 µL/min starting at 5% (v/v) A, held for 3 min, increased to 85% A within 2 min,

150

held for 1 min, further increased to 98% A within 2 min, held for 7 min, and reverted to 5% at

151

the 16th min and held for 7 min. The MS/MS system was operated in the negative ion

152

multiple-reaction monitoring mode. The compound specific MS/MS parameters are shown in

153

Table S1. Nitrogen was used as the curtain and the collision gas at flow rates of 20 and 2 psi,

154

respectively. The electrospray ionization voltage was set at -4.5 kV. The source heater was set

155

at 450° C. The nebulizer gas (ion source gas 1) was set at 55 psi, and the heater gas (ion

156

source gas 2) was set at 70 psi. The data acquisition was performed at a scan speed of 25 ms

157

and a resolving power of 0.70 full width at half maximum. Typical LC-MS/MS

158

chromatograms of select analytes in marine mammal tissues are shown in Figure S1.

159 160

Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC)

161

Quantification was performed by the isotope dilution method based on the responses of

162

13

163

HeP), d4-BzP (for BzP), and

164

standard calibration curve, with concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 200 ng/mL (1,000 ng/mL

C6-MeP (for MeP, OH-MeP, EtP, and OH-EtP),

13

C6-BuP (for BuP and PrP), d4-HeP (for

13

C6-4-HB (for 4-HB and 3, 4-DHB). An 11- to 13-point

7

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

165

for 3, 4-DHB and 4-HB), was used for the quantification of each target analyte. A calibration

166

curve was constructed by plotting the concentration-response factor for each target analyte

167

(analyte peak area divided by corresponding IS peak area) versus the response-dependent

168

concentration factor (concentration of analyte divided by concentration of IS). The regression

169

coefficients (r) were ≥0.99 for all calibration curves. The lowest concentration on the

170

calibration curve with a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of >10 was regarded as the instrumental

171

limits of quantification (LOQs). Method LOQs (MLOQs) were determined from the

172

post-matrix spiked 6-point calibration curves or estimated as 10 times the S/N ratio. As a

173

check for instrumentation drift in response factors, a midpoint calibration standard was

174

injected after every 10 samples. To prevent carryover of target chemicals from sample to

175

sample, a pure solvent (methanol) was injected after every 10 samples.

176

Several procedural blanks were analyzed with each batch of samples to evaluate

177

contamination arising from laboratory materials and solvents. Efforts were taken to minimize

178

background levels of target analytes. All glassware and materials used in the analysis were

179

thoroughly rinsed with acetone, methanol, and Milli-Q water and baked at 300° C prior to use.

180

Trace levels of MeP (mean: 0.52 ng/ml), PrP (0.87 ng/ml), 3,4-DHB (13.6 ng/ml), and 4-HB

181

(3.86 ng/ml) were found in procedural blanks (Table S2). The concentrations of target

182

analytes detected in procedural blanks were subtracted from sample values. Other QA/QC

183

protocols include pre-extraction matrix spike (MS), pre-extraction matrix spike duplicate

184

(MSD), and post-extraction matrix spike (MM), which were analyzed to determine accuracy

185

and precision (results presented below). For each matrix analyzed (for both tissues and

186

species), three samples were randomly selected, and 50 ng of target analytes and ISs were

8

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 8 of 28

Page 9 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

187

spiked into MS, MSD, and MM to determine recoveries. Precision was evaluated as a relative

188

percentage difference (RPD), which was calculated using the following equation (1).

189

ܴܲ‫[ܦ‬%] =

190

where ‫ܥ‬ெௌ and ‫ܥ‬ெௌ஽ are the concentrations determined in MS and MSD, respectively.

|஼ಾೄ ି஼ಾೄವ |×ଵ଴଴ ಴ಾೄ శ಴ಾೄವ మ

-----(1)

191 192

Data Analysis

193

The MS/MS data were acquired with Analyst software, Version 1.4.1 (Applied Biosystems,

194

Foster City, CA, USA). Statistical analyses were performed with statistics software package

195

R v.3.1.0 and Microsoft Excel 2007. For the calculation of geometric mean and arithmetic

196

mean, concentrations below the LOQ were substituted with a value equal to half of the LOQ.

197

To examine the relationship between analytes in the same tissue or the same analytes in

198

different tissues, Spearman (when data followed a normal distribution after logarithmic

199

transformation) or Pearson (when data did not follow a normal distribution after logarithmic

200

transformation) correlation analysis was used. Only those samples with detectable

201

concentrations of both chemicals or in both tissues were used in correlation analysis. To

202

investigate the difference between means for the same analyte in different categories, a

203

Student’s t-test (for those chemicals that followed a normal distribution after logarithmic

204

transformation) or Mann-Whitney U test (for those chemicals that did not follow a normal

205

distribution

206

Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) plot were used to determine if the data were normally distributed or

207

not. The concentrations of target analytes in marine mammal tissues are presented on a wet

208

weight (wet wt) basis, unless stated otherwise. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

after

logarithmic

transformation)

was

used.

9

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Shapiro-Wilk

test

and

Environmental Science & Technology

209 210

Method Performance

211

The MLOQs of target analytes in various matrices (with respect to both tissues and species)

212

ranged from 0.82 to 20.5 ng/g (Table S3), except for 4-HB, which was elevated in a few

213

matrices. Relative recoveries of analytes were estimated by dividing the ratio of the analyte

214

response to the IS response in MS/MSD samples (average) by the same ratio determined in

215

the MM sample. Relative recoveries of analytes were variable between matrices. Mean

216

relative recoveries ranged from 80% to 127% for MeP, EtP, PrP, BuP, BzP, and HeP; from 47%

217

to 79% for 3,4-DHB; from 109% to 156% for 4-HB; and from 11% to 85% for OH-MeP and

218

OH-EtP. Calculation of absolute recovery was based on the comparison between the response

219

of the analyte in the MS/MSD sample (average) to the response in the MM sample. Low

220

recoveries observed for OH-MeP, OH-EtP, and 3,4-DHB were due to matrix interference, and

221

the recoveries of corresponding ISs were similar to those of the parent compounds. Therefore,

222

correction for IS recoveries enabled accurate analysis of OH-MeP, OH-EtP, and 3,4-DHB in

223

tissues. The RPDs between MS and MSD analyses were below 30% for all target analytes.

224 225

Results and Discussion

226

For the purpose of discussion, the samples were grouped into four geographical regions:

227

Florida coast, California coast, Washington coast, and Alaskan waters.

228

Florida Coast. Livers and the blubber of dolphins from the Gulf of Mexico, Sarasota Bay,

229

Anna Maria Sound, Palma Sola Bay, Venice Inlet, and Tampa Bay and livers of whales from

230

the Atlantic Ocean and the Anclote River were analyzed from the Florida coast. Of the six

10

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 10 of 28

Page 11 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

231

parent parabens determined, MeP was the most predominant compound (detected in 12 of 20

232

samples), found in the livers of small cetaceans collected from the Florida coast, the Gulf of

233

Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean (Table 1). 4-HB was the predominant metabolite (detected in

234

all samples) among the four metabolites measured (Table 1). PrP, OH-MeP, and 3,4-DHB

235

were found in 5%-25% of the samples analyzed (Table S4).

236

Concentration of MeP in the livers of the cetaceans ranged from rough-toothed dolphin ~ striped dolphin > pygmy sperm whale ~ clymene dolphin.

239

The mean hepatic concentration of MeP in the bottlenose dolphin was 159 ± 260 ng/g, wet wt

240

(n = 10). Greater concentrations of MeP in the bottlenose dolphin than in other cetaceans can

241

be explained by this mammal’s near-shore feeding habits. The hepatic concentrations of 4-HB

242

were much higher than those of MeP, at a range of 875 to 26,500 ng/g, wet wt. 4-HB

243

concentrations were found in the decreasing order of rough-toothed dolphin > striped dolphin

244

~ bottlenose dolphin > pygmy sperm whale ~ clymene dolphin. The mean hepatic

245

concentration of 4-HB in the rough-toothed dolphin was 12,000 ± 14,800 ng/g, wet wt (n = 2),

246

which was higher than that in the bottlenose dolphin (7,230 ± 8,430 ng/g, wet wt). Although

247

4-HB is formed through the metabolic transformation of parabens, this compound has been

248

reported to occur naturally in certain plants, including seagrasses.27 The concentrations of PrP,

249

OH-MeP, and 3,4-DHB in cetacean livers were one to four orders of magnitude lower than

250

those of MeP and 4-HB (Table S4).

251

4-HB was found in all (100%) dolphin blubber samples analyzed at concentrations

252

that ranged from 57.0 to 2,180 ng/g, wet wt (Table 1). 3,4-DHB was detected in the blubber

11

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

253

of 4 of 17 individuals (23.5%), at concentrations that ranged from 0.05) (Figure S2a).

262

The concentrations of MeP and 4-HB in the livers and the blubber (4-HB only) of

263

female bottlenose dolphins were greater than those in males, but the difference was not

264

statistically significant (p > 0.05) (Figure S3). No significant correlation was found between

265

hepatic MeP/4-HB concentrations and age of female bottlenose dolphins (age data were

266

available only for female bottlenose dolphins) (Figure S2b, c). These results suggest that

267

accumulation features of MeP and 4-HB are different from those of persistent organic

268

pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls, for which adult females generally contain

269

lesser concentrations than do adult males.28 A significant positive correlation was found

270

between MeP and 4-HB concentrations in the livers of cetaceans (r = 0.79, p = 0.002) (Figure

271

2a), which may suggest their co-exposures or metabolic transformation from MeP to 4-HB in

272

the livers of cetaceans.

273

The concentrations of MeP and 4-HB in livers of dolphins collected from the

274

near-shore waters of Florida (Sarasota Bay, Anna Maria Sound, Palma Sola Bay, Venice Inlet,

12

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 12 of 28

Page 13 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

275

and Tampa Bay) were over 2-fold greater than those collected from the open waters in the

276

Gulf of Mexico (Figure 3). Similarly, the concentrations of 4-HB in the blubber of dolphins

277

collected from near-shore areas were over 2-fold greater than those collected from the Gulf of

278

Mexico (Figure 3). These results may suggest greater exposures to parabens in near-shore

279

coastal waters than in offshore waters. The primary sources of parabens in marine mammals

280

are postulated to be wastewater discharges in coastal areas. Although 4-HB is found naturally

281

in certain seagrasses, a significant correlation between MeP and 4-HB in dolphins suggests

282

the significance of anthropogenic sources of exposure in marine mammals.

283 284

California Coast. Livers, brains, and kidneys of southern sea otters collected from California

285

coast were analyzed. MeP was found in the livers of 18 of 25 individuals and in all brain and

286

kidney samples (Table 2). 4-HB was found in all livers, brains, and kidneys (Table 2). It

287

should be noted that 3,4-DHB was detected in 8 of 10 kidneys, with a mean concentration of

288

76.7 ± 39.8 ng/g, wet wt, which was higher than the concentration found in livers (DR: 20%;

289

mean: 20.7 ±3 4.0 ng/g, wet wt) and brains (DR: 30%; mean: 31.0 ± 17.7 ng/g, wet wt)

290

(Table S5–S7). EtP, PrP, OH-MeP, and OH-EtP were found less frequently (DR: 8%–30%) at

291

concentrations below 12 ng/g, wet wt (Table S5–S7).

292

Mean hepatic concentrations of MeP and 4-HB in sea otters were 31.0 ± 24.7 (range:

293

2-fold greater than those in adults (Figure S7a). A significant

15

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

341

positive correlation between hepatic MeP and 4-HB concentrations was found in northern sea

342

otters (r = 0.82, p = 0.0006, Figure 2e).

343 344

Alaskan Waters. Livers of northern sea otters from Prince William Sound, Kachemak Bay,

345

and Pow Island and polar bears from the Chuckchi and the Beaufort Seas were analyzed

346

(Table 3, S9 and S10). MeP was found in the livers of northern sea otters from Alaska at

347

concentrations that ranged from 10.3 to 686 ng/g, wet wt (mean: 179 ± 270 ng/g), which were

348

approximately 2-fold greater than the concentrations found in sea otters from the Washington

349

coast. MeP concentrations in livers of three sea otters (mean: 595 ± 78.6 ng/g, wet wt), one

350

from Pow Island and two from Prince William Sound, were much higher than those in

351

remaining samples (mean: 23.1 ± 10.9 ng/g, wet wt). The mean hepatic 4-HB concentration

352

in livers of sea otters collected from Alaska was 4,830 ± 4,960 ng/g, wet wt, which was

353

2-fold lower than those found in sea otters from the Washington coast. A significant positive

354

correlation was found between hepatic MeP and 4-HB concentrations in sea otters from

355

Alaska (r = 0.92, p = 0.001, Figure 2f).

356

MeP was detected in 2 of 10 polar bear livers, and 4-HB was found in all polar bear

357

livers. The concentrations of MeP and 4-HB in polar bears were much lower than those found

358

in cetaceans and sea otters from other U.S. coastal locations. The mean hepatic concentration

359

of 4-HB in polar bears was 465 ± 234 ng/g, wet wt (Table 3). The presence of MeP and 4-HB

360

in livers of polar bears from the Chuckchi and the Beaufort Seas suggests widespread

361

distribution of 4-HB in remote marine areas. The natural sources of 4-HB is a source of

362

exposure in polar bears and other marine mammals, but further studies are needed to

16

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 16 of 28

Page 17 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

363

ascertain the contribution of anthropogenic sources of these compounds in remote marine

364

environments.

365

In summary, this is the first study to report the occurrence of MeP and 4-HB in marine

366

mammals. Occurrence of parabens and their metabolites in marine mammals from remote

367

marine locations suggests widespread distribution of these chemicals in the environment. The

368

concentrations of 4-HB found in dolphins and sea otters were some of the highest values ever

369

reported in the literature. Although 4-HB has been reported to occur naturally in plants, a

370

significant correlation between MeP and 4-HB in all of the marine mammal species analyzed

371

from all of the geographic locations suggests a significant contribution from anthropogenic

372

sources of these chemicals in marine mammals. Further studies are needed to evaluate the

373

sources, pathways, and toxic effects of parabens and 4-HB in the marine environment.

374

Associated Content

375

Supporting Information Available

376

Additional information as noted in the text. This material is available free of charge via the

377

Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

378

References

379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390

1.

SCCS, 2001. Clarification on Opinion SCCS/1348/10 in the Light of the Danish Clause of Safeguard Banning the use of Parabens in Cosmetic Products Intended for Children Under Three Years of Age. Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS). . 2. Soni, M. G.; Carabin, I. G.; Burdock, G. A., Safety assessment of esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (parabens). Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association 2005, 43 (7), 985-1015. 3. Liao, C.; Liu, F.; Kannan, K., Occurrence of and dietary exposure to parabens in foodstuffs from the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (8), 3918-25. 4. Aubert, N.; Ameller, T.; Legrand, J. J., Systemic exposure to parabens: pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, excretion balance and plasma metabolites of [14C]-methyl-, propyland butylparaben in rats after oral, topical or subcutaneous administration. Food and 17

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434

5. 6.

7.

8. 9.

10.

11. 12.

13.

14. 15.

16.

17.

18.

chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association 2012, 50 (3-4), 445-54. Harville, H. M.; Voorman, R.; Prusakiewicz, J. J., Comparison of paraben stability in human and rat skin. Drug Metabolism Letters 2007, 1 (1), 17-21. Jewell, C.; Prusakiewicz, J. J.; Ackermann, C.; Payne, N. A.; Fate, G.; Voorman, R.; Williams, F. M., Hydrolysis of a series of parabens by skin microsomes and cytosol from human and minipigs and in whole skin in short-term culture. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2007, 225 (2), 221-8. Janjua, N. R.; Mortensen, G. K.; Andersson, A. M.; Kongshoj, B.; Skakkebaek, N. E.; Wulf, H. C., Systemic uptake of diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and butyl paraben following whole-body topical application and reproductive and thyroid hormone levels in humans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41 (15), 5564-70. Wang, L.; Kannan, K., Alkyl protocatechuates as novel urinary biomarkers of exposure to p-hydroxybenzoic acid esters (parabens). Environment international 2013, 59, 27-32. Darbre, P. D., Underarm cosmetics are a cause of breast cancer. European journal of cancer prevention : the official journal of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation 2001, 10 (5), 389-93. Darbre, P. D.; Harvey, P. W., Parabens can enable hallmarks and characteristics of cancer in human breast epithelial cells: a review of the literature with reference to new exposure data and regulatory status. J. Applied Toxicol. 2014, 34 (9), 925-38. Harvey, P. W., Parabens, oestrogenicity, underarm cosmetics and breast cancer: a perspective on a hypothesis. J. Applied Toxicol 2003, 23 (5), 285-8. Hossaini, A.; Larsen, J. J.; Larsen, J. C., Lack of oestrogenic effects of food preservatives (parabens) in uterotrophic assays. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association 2000, 38 (4), 319-23. Byford, J. R.; Shaw, L. E.; Drew, M. G.; Pope, G. S.; Sauer, M. J.; Darbre, P. D., Oestrogenic activity of parabens in MCF7 human breast cancer cells. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2002, 80 (1), 49-60. Oishi, S., Effects of butyl paraben on the male reproductive system in mice. Arc. Toxicol. 2002, 76 (7), 423-9. Wang, L.; Liao, C.; Liu, F.; Wu, Q.; Guo, Y.; Moon, H. B.; Nakata, H.; Kannan, K., Occurrence and human exposure of p-hydroxybenzoic acid esters (parabens), bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE), and their hydrolysis products in indoor dust from the United States and three East Asian countries. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (21), 11584-93. Wang, L.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, W.; Kannan, K., Characteristic profiles of urinary p-hydroxybenzoic acid and its esters (parabens) in children and adults from the United States and China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (4), 2069-76. Calafat, A. M.; Ye, X.; Wong, L. Y.; Bishop, A. M.; Needham, L. L., Urinary concentrations of four parabens in the U.S. population: NHANES 2005-2006. Environmental Health Perspectives 2010, 118 (5), 679-85. Sandanger, T. M.; Huber, S.; Moe, M. K.; Braathen, T.; Leknes, H.; Lund, E., Plasma concentrations of parabens in postmenopausal women and self-reported use of personal 18

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 18 of 28

Page 19 of 28

435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472

Environmental Science & Technology

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27. 28.

29.

care products: the NOWAC postgenome study. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 2011, 21 (6), 595-600. Frederiksen, H.; Jorgensen, N.; Andersson, A. M., Parabens in urine, serum and seminal plasma from healthy Danish men determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 2011, 21 (3), 262-71. Xue, J.; Wu, Q.; Sakthivel, S.; Pavithran, P. V.; Vasukutty, J. R.; Kannan, K., Urinary levels of endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including bisphenols, bisphenol A diglycidyl ethers, benzophenones, parabens, and triclosan in obese and non-obese Indian children. Environ. Res. 2015, 137, 120-8. Wang, L.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Kannan, K., Accumulation of 19 environmental phenolic and xenobiotic heterocyclic aromatic compounds in human adipose tissue. Environ. Intl. 2015, 78, 45-50. Abbas, S.; Greige-Gerges, H.; Karam, N.; Piet, M. H.; Netter, P.; Magdalou, J., Metabolism of parabens (4-hydroxybenzoic acid esters) by hepatic esterases and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases in man. Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics 2010, 25 (6), 568-77. Kannan, K.; Koistinen, J.; Beckmen, K.; Evans, T.; Gorzelany, J. F.; Hansen, K. J.; Jones, P. D.; Helle, E.; Nyman, M.; Giesy, J. P., Accumulation of perfluorooctane sulfonate in marine mammals. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35 (8), 1593-8. Hart, K.; Gill, V. A.; Kannan, K., Temporal trends (1992-2007) of perfluorinated chemicals in Northern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) from South-Central Alaska. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2009, 56 (3), 607-14. Kannan, K.; Agusa, T.; Evans, T. J.; Tanabe, S., Trace element concentrations in livers of polar bears from two populations in Northern and Western Alaska. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2007, 53 (3), 473-82. Wang, L.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, W.; Kannan, K., Widespread occurrence and distribution of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) and its derivatives in human urine from the United States and China. Environ. Sci. Technol 2012, 46 (23), 12968-76. Olga Zapata, C. M., Phenolic acids in seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 1979, 7, 307-317. Kajiwara, N.; Kannan, K.; Muraoka, M.; Watanabe, M.; Takahashi, S.; Gulland, F.; Olsen, H.; Blankenship, A. L.; Jones, P. D.; Tanabe, S.; Giesy, J. P., Organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and butyltin compounds in blubber and livers of stranded California sea lions, elephant seals, and harbor seals from coastal California, USA. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2001, 41 (1), 90-9. Kannan, K. G., K.S.; Thomas, N.J.; Tanabe, S.; Giesy, J.P., Butyltin residues in Southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) found dead along California coastal waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32 (9), 1169-1175.

473

19

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

Page 20 of 28

Table 1. Concentrations (ng/g, wet weight) of Parabens and Their Metabolites in Livers of Cetaceans Found Stranded Along the Florida Coastal Waters

species

sex

age

date

n

stranded

Bottlenose

Liver water body

MeP

Blubber* 4-HB

4-HB

mean±SD

range

mean±SD

range

mean±SD

range

188±285

< 41.1 - 865

7980±9280

875 - 26500

229±196

62 - 662

74.5±41.8

44.9 - 104

4230±3760

1570 - 6890

84.7±22.8

64.3-105

98.0±67.9

50 - 146

8620±7620

3230 - 14000

167±155

57 - 276

120±112

< 41.1 - 199

11900±14800

1480-22400

1140±1480

91.3-2180

< 41.1

< 41.1

1450±720

916-2270

423±66.5

350-480

31.4±9.45

< 20.5 - 37.7

2520±1270

1450-3920

n.a.**

n.a.

Gulf of Mexico, 2;

dolphin

2 n.a.; F

18

3

M

n.a.

3

Pygmy sperm

11/27/ -

2

F

Gulf of Mexico

12/3/1995

Anna Maria Sound, 1; Tampa Bay, 1

6/15/1995

Gulf of Mexico

8/16/1994-8

Atlantic Ocean, 2;

/23/2000

Anclote River, 1

whale * MeP was found in only one blubber **n.a.: not available

20

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 21 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

Table 2. Concentrations (ng/g, wet weight) of Parabens and Their Metabolites in Livers, Kidneys, and Brains of Sea Otters Collected from the California Coastal Waters, and in Livers of Sea Otters from the Washington Coastal Waters sex

county

n

collection date

5

8/19/1994-7/2/1999

age

body condition

MeP

postmortem state

mean±SD

4-HB range

mean±SD

range

16800±10200

6930-27700

7330±5790

3050-20200

7930±6230

1090-15700

17200±13400

3700-35300

Liver (California) San Luis Obispo

M

Monterey

Santa Cruz San Luis Obispo

F

Monterey Santa Cruz

7

8/23/1994-11/27/1995

4

9/30/1994-10/9/1995

4

3/20/1995-11/2/1995

4

1

9/6/1994-11/27/1995

2/23/1995

Immature, 2;

Poor, 1; good,

Poor, 1; fair,

Adult, 3

3; emaciated, 1

2; good, 2

Suckling, 1;

Emaciated, 1;

immature, 1;

poor, 1; fair, 2;

Fair, 2;

Subadult, 2;

Good, 2;

good, 5

adult, 3

excellent, 1

Subadult, 3;

Poor, 2; fair, 1;

Fair, 1;

adult, 1

good, 1

good, 1

Immature, 2;

Emaciated, 1;

Fair, 2;

Adult, 2;

poor, 2; good, 1

good, 2

Immature, 2; adult, 2 Adult

Poor, 1;

Poor, 1;

emaciated, 1;

22.4±13.3

23.4±10.6 33.2±24.6

< 10.26-54.8 < 10.26-44.1 < 10.26-36.1 < 10.26-67.5

56.9±46.2

29.1-126

19600±10700

10200-31100

< 10.26

n.a.*

5690

n.a.

121±159

29.9-360

23800±30000

2460-66400

Good, 2

41.9±19.2

28.3-55.4

7980±5690

3950-12000

good, 3

fair, 1

30.9±17.1

Poor

Good

Poor, 2; fair, 1;

Fair, 1;

good, 1

good, 3

Kidney (California) Santa

4

9/30/1994-10/9-1995

2

11/18/1994-8/1-1995

Monterey

1

11/27/1995

Subadult

Excellent

Good

84.5

n.a.

2480

n.a.

San Luis

1

3/20/1995

Adult

Emaciated

Fair

12.2

n.a.

3580

n.a.

Cruz M

Subadult, 1;

San Luis Obispo

Adult, 3 Immature, 1;

Emaciated, 1;

adult, 1

good, 1

21

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

F

Page 22 of 28

Obispo Monterey

2

11/28/1994-8/8/1995

Immature, 1;

Emaciated, 1;

poor, 1;

adult, 1

poor, 1

good, 1

Subadult, 1;

Poor, 2; fair, 1;

Fair, 1;

Adult, 3

good, 1

good, 3

Immature, 1;

Emaciated, 1;

fair,1;

adult, 1

good, 2

Good, 2

Subadult

Good

Fair

Immature, 1;

Emaciated, 1;

poor, 1;

adult, 1

poor, 1

good, 1

n.a. n.a.

152±112

72-231

33300±18700

20000-46500

27.1±33.6

5.99-77.2

3240±5780

200-11900

18.8±11.7

9.16-31.8

1610±1610

156-3340

Brain (California) Santa

4

9/30/1994-10/9-1995

3

11/18/1994-7/2/1999

Monterey

1

8/23/1994

Monterey

2

11/28/1994-8/8/1995

Cruz M

F

San Luis Obispo

14

458

6.80±0.07

6.75-6.85

1590±63.6

1540-1630

n.a.

92.4±109

< 20.5-358

6890±8940

722-32600

n.a.

95.2±91.5

< 20.5-228

12900±14600

329-31200

Liver (Washington) M F

Pacific coast,

13

7/16/2000-5/5/2004

5

7/3/2000-4/12/2004

WA

Subadult, 3; Adult, 10 Adult, 5

*n.a.: not available

22

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 23 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

Table 3. Concentrations (ng/g, wet weight) of Parabens and Their Metabolites in Livers of Northern Sea Otters and Polar Bears from the Alaskan Coastal Waters sex

n

collection date

age

MeP

cause of death

4-HB

mean±SD

range

mean±SD

range

197±277

< 20.5-686

5160±5100

1110-17600

sea otter* M

13

n.a.***

1

4/11/1996-2003

n.a.

Pup, 2; Subadult,

Hunted, 6;

1; Adult, 5; old

Stranded, 3;

adult, 2

n.a., 1

n.a.

n.a.

21.8

n.a.

1520

n.a.

n.a.

4.57±1.16

< 4.10-6.94

395±180

229-719

n.a.

7.30±6.40

< 4.10-16.9

569±293

280-862

polar bear** M

6

1/26/1995-6/3/2002

F

4

6/6/1994-12/4/2000

Sub-adult, 3; adult, 3 Cub, 1; sub-adult, 2; adult, 1

*Sea otters were from Prince William Sound, Kachemak Bay, Pow Island; **Polar bears were collected from the Chuckchi Sea and the Beaufort Sea. ***n.a.: not available.

23

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

Figure 1. Map showing collection locations for marine mammal samples

24

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 24 of 28

Page 25 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

Figure 2. Correlations between concentrations of MeP and 4-HB in various marine mammal tissues. (a) livers of cetaceans from Florida coastal waters; (b) livers of sea otters from California coastal waters; (c) brains of sea otters from California coastal waters; (d) kidneys of sea otters from California coastal waters; (e) livers of sea otters from Washington coastal waters; (f) livers of sea otters from Alaska waters. Note: only those samples with measurable levels of chemicals are presented.

25

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

Figure 3. Concentrations (mean±SD) of MeP and 4-HB in livers, and 4-HB in blubber of dolphins from near-shore Florida coastal waters and Gulf of Mexico.

26

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 26 of 28

Page 27 of 28

Environmental Science & Technology

Figure 4. Concentrations (mean±SD) of MeP and 4-HB in livers of female and male sea otters from California (a) and Washington (b) coastal waters.

27

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Environmental Science & Technology

TOC ART

28

ACS Paragon Plus Environment

Page 28 of 28