Emil Fischer and the German Universities Felix A. Carroll Douidson College Dnuidson, North Cnrolinn 28036 One of the important themes in the history of chemical education is the German influence on the development of graduate edr~cationin the Ilnited States. One outstanding example is the use of teaching assistants in lahoratory instruction, which was int.rodoced hy Iiehig and which quickly snread over Germanv and later over the U.S. as well. Also n.oteworthy is the larie number of U.S. chemists who received their graduate training in German universities during the 19th century ( 1 ) and who hrought German ideas and methods hack to the U.S. with them. Later, Johns Hopkins hecame the first of many U.S. universities founded specifically along the lines of the German university (2). The most distinguishing characteristic of the German universities in the latter part of the 19th century was the concent of the nrofessor as a nrnven researcher who was expected not only to teach hut also to direct student? in carrying out nuhlishable research. This nhiloamhv . . is so ingrained in u,ntrmpcrsr\. ~ ~ n i w r s i tthink~ng \. that I T 14 difticulr 10 rrmunl,t,r rlw it was oririnalh :I (;rrt~i:~n developmrnr and thar U.S. educational systems chi have heen founded on quite different ideas.' As in the rest of Europe, German universities were duminated hy the Church during the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance and the Protestant Relimnation, however, local sovereigns were ahle to ohtain greater control of local nni. neriod from the middle ofthe lfith centnrv versities ( 3 ) The to the end ofthe i7th centurywas characterized hy universities which existed ~ r i m a r i.l vas ~rofessional training schools . for secular and ecclesiastical officials and which were dominated hv local theoloeicnl interests. The svstem of government-sponsored lectureships was estahlished during this and ~ e r i o d( 4 ) . During the 18th centurv a new philosophv . spirit 1)ecanw ~ ~ r t m i n m 111t German i~nivt.r;~t~c;. 1ncte.d t.t' a schdast~citvlt, t~;s+rd on Aristort~li;~~~iim ;tnd rher~lre:?., M'I~I'I and other new thinkers urged free research and instruction. Whereas in the previous century universities were assumed to exist to transmit truths alreadv knnwn. the German nniversities of the 18th century sawiheir task as the discovery of new truths. The 19th centnry was characterized hy an increase in scientific investigation and knowledge, and in Germany this research was centered in the universities. With this scientific spirit, universities lnst much of their provincial religious character. However. they remained fiercely territorial in the sense that they competed with each other for the hest. available talent. Because this period corresponds to the time of Emil Fischer (5),a discussion of his carebrprovides a personalized history of many German universities and of their competitive nature during this era. In 1871 Emil Fischer enrolled at. the University of Bonn, which had heen estahlished for the weaker provinces of Prussia in 1818. However, he transferred in 1872 to the Universitv of Strashonre. This old univnrsit.~.founded in 1538. had heen one of t h e h o s t important uni&ities in the 17th cent,urv. It was under French control from I697 to 1871. After the P&O-German authoritieq regained the territory, the university was provided with ample resources and good ~
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snmrone else. however, one of the ~ " r z h u r gprofessors learned that Fisrher was reawering and arranged to meet him in Heidell~ergto see for himself. When they met, the Wiirzhurg professor (a zndogist several years older than Fischer) suggested that thev walk from the town to thecastle overlooking Heidelherg. The elderly professor soon became winded and sureested t.hat thev s t o for ~ refreshments flask nf srkt. ~ ~ s c h t ~ r l a i m that e dthe nld'er man quite soon became intoxicated while he was not affected. The zoologist later repnrled t o his colleagues that "Fischer is entirely healthy and will orjt live us all."\17hm the story was told and retold later in Wiirzburg, hnwever, it was said that Fischer had allowed himself tn he examined hv a veterinarian (8). During Fischer's time in Erlangen the need for a new huilding had hem recognized. hut it had not heen constructed even though Fischer had drawn up plans, perhaps because the liavarian government treated its smallest. university with "the poodwill of a stepfather" ( 3 ) . At. Wiirzhurg Fischer was promised hoth renovatinn of the existing chemistry building to provide hetter ventilation and the construction of a new huilding later. Furthermore, hy comparison to Erlangen, Wiirzhurg was a livelv town characterized hy tolerance toward all persnns-an atmosphere which attracted Fischer. Fischer accepted the position and remained a t the University of Wiirzhnrg until 1892. During that summer Fischer was visited in his home by a representative of the minister of education in Berlin. He talked casually with Fischer for some time and, near the end of their conversation, asked what Fischer thought ofthe chemistry facilities a t the University of Berlin. When Fischer replied that they were totally inadequate, he was asked to accept the chair a t the university as sucressrw tn Hnffmann, who had died that. year, and to design a new I~oildingfor the institute. Although Fischer was inclined not to accept the o f f ~ rhe , promised that he would consider it carefully nntl wnr~ldvisit Berlin hefnre making his decisinn, Volume 56, Number 2,February 1979 / 107
The University of Berlin had been established in 1809 as a Prussiau state university to replace the University of Halle, which was lost by the Prussians through the treaty of Tilsit (9).Although founded a t about the time Napoleon was reorganizing the French universities into narrow professional schools to serve the immediate needs of the state, the Prussians were determined to establish a university for the joint ~ u r s u i t sof research and free teaching. As Wilhelm von ~ u m b o l d twrote in preparing a memorial address for the University of Berlin, "knowledge has certainly been as much, n ~ more, enriched by university teachers and in ~ e r m a even than academicians" (10). T o this end, the Prussians sought the most outstanding.. nrofessor for the universitv. Althoueh . the srate government rrtained the right toappoinr professors of the uniwrsitv. it usuall~souehr and heeded the adeicr of the university faculty.2~ h e f a c u had k ~ suggested three names to the minister of education: Baeyer, KekulB, and Fischer. Baeyer declined to leave Munich, and both he and Kekule were considered somewhat old for the position. Therefore, the chair was offered to Fischer. When Fischer visited Berlin, he found the Prussians most accommodating. The minister of education received him at 8:00 AM on a Sunday morning and assured him that he would have complete freedom in designing and constructing the new building for the chemistry institute. The faculty a t the universitv. urged .. Fischer to acceDt the chair. Before doing so, however, Fisrher u,ished to visit tht, Bamrian authorities in M~michand determine what commitments they would make to him for the chemistry institute in ~ i i r z b u r g He . was astonished that they made him wait nearly two days before seeing him. The minister told Fischer that because funds for a new building in Wiirzhurg had been appropriated, he was obliged to remain there. Fischer replied that the building had not been built and would never be completely his in any case. Because of this treatment. and because both his Darents and his wife wished him to accept what was the most prestigious chair of chemistrv in Germanv a t the time. he a c c e ~ t e dthe appointment (11). The laboratory building Fischer designed for the University
108 I Journal of ChemicalEducation
of Berlin opened in 1900, and it was soon copied worldwide. It had a central hood system and ventilators to provide fresh air to the laboratories. While a t the University of Berlin, Fischer developed the concept of the small research group and of the student "shopping around" for a research director and topic (12).The laboratory was damaged in World War 11, hut was restored after the war and is still in use as part of the chemistry division of what is now called Humboldt University. The main lecture room of the building has been named for Fischer. Fischer continued his'work on carbohvdrates and purines at the liniversity d Berlin and initiated work on proteins and enzvmes. He also estnldishcd the radiochemistrv laburntory in which Habn and Meitner worked, and a number of his students later won Nobel Prizes. As Emil Fischer's career indicates, competition among leading universities for the most outstanding professors was a stimulus for the nrovision of eood research facilities and for the recognition of the outstanding teacher-researcher. In turn, eood facilities and recognition orovided a ereater stimulus for chemists to further th;? science and to d&elop an effective system of graduate education in chemistry. ~~~~
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Literature Cited (1) Wotiz. J. H.,J.CHEM. EDUC.54.413 11977J.
(21 Thwing,C.F.,"TheAmeriaanandtheGermanUniuersity."TheMaeMilianCompany,
Fischer. (61 Ksuffmsn,G.B.and Ciuls, R. P., J. CHEM.EDUC.,51,295(1977J. (7) Fischer. E.."Ausmeinem Lehen: Verlag Julius Springer, Berlin, 1921. pp. 89-90. (81 Reference 771,nn er. 71"-lll (9) Flenlev. R..''Modern Germs" Hiatory,"E.P.Duttan &Co.,I"e.NewYork,New York, ,OR-12". (101 von Humboldl, W.,quotedin Psulren (41. pp. 5354. (111 Reference 17).pp. 14&142. (121 Horneck, Fri~drich,',HistoryufC h e m i s ~ yin Berlin: leduco presented ta Southern Illinois University Histary ofChemistryatudonts in East Berlin,July 18, 1977.
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