Employment Policies and Practices in American 0rganiz;ations 0
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY TEACHING HAROLD A. IDDLES University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire
INTEE experience of every graduate student in chemistry, some group discussion has centered around the question of future choice of employment, whether it should be in industry, in the government research laboratory, or in the field of teaching and research. In considering the staffs of the colleges and universities of this country it is generally recognized that openings exist in their science departments due to the withdrawal of trained personnel for war activities which led to a final severance of their academic connection, the almost complete cessation of training of new Ph.D. personnel for a period of years, and the sudden increase in enrollments of the universities following the war. It appears that further expansion in all departments of institutions of higher learning should continue, for in 1947 the student body numbered approximately 2,500,000 with a faculty of 155,000 and the President's Comrnission on Higher Education' envisions a goal for 1960 of 4,500,000 students with a faculty need of 350,000. Besides the general increase in enrollment, the student majors in science have increased about 80 per cent since the fall of 1941, while the numbers of professors and instructors have increased only 20 per cent2. It is estimated that the colleges and universities would require 15,000 more science instructors, includmg 4500 with the doctor's degree, if the prewar student-teacher ratio were to be re-established. Prior to the war the opportunities offered by the colleges and universities attracted a proportionate share of the well-qualified Ph.D. men from the graduate schools but on every hand it is acknowledged that the salary inducements of industry and somewhat of governmental research laboratories has placed the universities of the country in an unfavorable position, except with those individuals who have a firm conviction that they prefer an opening in the teaching field. Thus in 1947 the scientists and engineers actually eugaged in scientific research, technical development, or
teaching comprised about 137,000 persons with 57,000 in industry, 30,000 in governmental laboratories, and 50,000 in colleges and universities. In discussing this distribution the Steelman report3continues-"In recent years the share of the government has remained relatively stable while that of industry has greatly increased. But just as the share of the universities and colleges in the national research budget has been falling since 1930, so has their share in the trained manpower pool: from about 49 per cent in 1930 to 41 per cent in 1940 to 36 per cent in 1947. This is significant, because college and university scientists not only perform the major portion of basic research, but also because they teach. They are the source of further expansion in our pool of trained manpower." It is the purpose of this article to point out a few pertinent facts which a young scientist should consider in making a decision to enter the teaching and research field.
U. S. President's Commignion on Higher Education, "Higher Education for American Democracy," Supt. of Documents, Washington, D. C., 1947, Vol. IV, p. 9-11. STEELMAN, J. R.,"Science and Public Policy," Supt. of Documents, Washington, D. C., 1947, Vol. I V , p. 7.
STEELMAN, J. R.,"Science and Public Policy," Supt. of Documents, Wsshington, D. C., 1947, Val. IV, p. 15. 'U. S. President's Commission on Hieher Education. "Hieher E d h t i o n for American ~emocraoy,' Supt. of Documents, Washington, D. C., 1947, Vol. IV, p. 2.
4
PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS
"The qualities which the individual faculty member should possess include sound scholarship, professional competence, a clear concept of the role of higher education in society, broad huknanistic understanding, lively curiosity, a sincere interest in research, insight into motivation and sympathetic, intelligent understanding of young p e ~ p l e . " ~I t is perhaps surprising that so many laudable qualities should be expected in one individual, but when a preponderance does occur, such a teacher is recognized by succeeding generations of students as most outstanding. A description of two such teachers who were successful in both undergraduate and graduate instruction, as well as in research production, illustrates these characteristics. The first professor was trained in the classics and mathematics in an eastern liberal arts college and proceeded with graduate study in a renowned midwestern research center
.
AUGUST, 1950
where he came into contact with several forceful teaching and research personalities of that era. Later, as a teacher in one of the great state universities, two traits predominated. He prepared and delivered polished and lucid lectures in which interest was stimulated by a limited number of demonstrations. His lively curiosity about the unknown was contagious and naturally at? tracted followers into early research, where his example in experimentation and his mastery of the broad literature background of his field were particularly challenging to his stndents. The second professor came from the western plains and spent his teaching life in one of the eastern universities, in giving the fundamental lecture course in organic chemistry and graduate courses and research direction for a long array of distinguished students, includmg a later Nobel price winner. The key to his success was a quiet and kindly manner, a recognized mastery of subject material, an ability to stimulate the best efforts of his stndents, and a willingness and cordiality in discussing problems with students or colleagues. All in all there must be the real desire to teach, coupled with those personal attributes which are recognized in the personalities of really successful teachers. In his own case, the young chemist can make a self-appraisal of his capabilities by noting the reactions of students assigned to him while a graduate assistant, from seminar performances before fellow graduate students, and often from unsolicited but sympathetic comments from an experienced professor. OPINION OF SCIENTISTS ABOUT THEIR WORK
As a part of the Steelman report6 a study of the attributes of a scientifically selected cross section of American scientists was undertaken. This survey is significant for it represents the thought and experience of approximately 200 individuals in each of three categories, industry, governmental laboratories, and university. TOthe question "Aside from money considerations, where do you think a person can get the most satisfaction from a career in science-in the Federal government, in an industrial research laboratory, in a university, or somewhere else?," the university received a high rating and a government career a low third. The most frequently mentioned reasons given by uni-
423
versity scientists for their view were freedom in choice of work and research, the human contacts with stndents, and the general atmosphere of their work. GRADUATE TRAINING
Among college teachers in 1947, approximately 25 per cent held a doctor's degree hut it is certain that a much higher percentage among the 5800 chemistry teachers have completed their doctorate. The trend toward employment of men with full graduate training continues, as evidenced by the emphasis placed on this training in the accrediting of schools by the Committee on Professional Training of Chemists of the A. C. S. Thus the young scientist, if he expects to teach, should proceed to graduate school. I n entering upon graduate work, the choice of a field of specialization should be influenced by two factors: (1)the branch of chemistry of greatest interest, and (2) the type of openings which may he available upon completion of graduate study. Almost every chairman of a chemistry department receives numerous applications from young men interested in the teaching of physical or organic chemistry but all too rarely from individuals trained in inorganic or analytical chemistry. Yet the heavy teaching loads and service courses are found in the latter two fields. In the future many openings can be predicted to occur in these two fields. Another closely allied type of opening is in the borderline courses in general education where the chemist of broad science background, historical perspective, and possessing a flair for lecturing will find an outlet for his capabilities. CHOICE OF GRADUATE SCHOOL
About 90 institutions now grant doctorates in the physical and biological sciences, but the larger part of the facilities for research are concentrated in a relatively limited number. Thus of nearly 15,000 doctorates granted between 193645, more than half were conferred by 12 of the schools. Likewise, half of the 4800 degrees in chemistry were conferred during the same period by 13 institutions. However, in examining the total list it should he noted that some of the more selective and successful graduate schools produce a limited number of Ph.D. men. Some of the factors to be considered in choosing a graduate school, if teaching is a possible goal, follows: 1. Choose a university which has a record for proTotal per cent ducing teachers and thus continues to receive inquiries ",>Ginhad ---= N w em&@ i n according to for teaching personnel. Some graduate schools emphaGovernnumber size the industrial viewpoint in their research programs Industry University interviewed Per m t who choose ment while others undertake basic research principally. University 36 30 76 48 2. Choose a university which offers broad fundaIndustrial laborstory 18 58 11 31 mental graduate training together with the opportunity 5 1. 11 Federal eovernment 37 2 Endow& laboratory 3 1 1 for specialization in one major field of chemistry and r e 2 4 2 Own practice .. . search under an authority in some special phase of 6 4 7 6 Don't know chemistry. 3. Investigate the opportunities for an appointment to a graduate assistantship which offers an apprenticeSTEELMAN, J. R.,"Science and Public Policy," Supt. of Doou- ship in teaching. After this experience and in the later stages of graduate work the availability of a fellowship men&, Washington, D. C., 1947, Vol. 111, p. 205.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
424
appointment is important, since the recipient may spend full time in the completion of his research problem. 4. At present a few universities are stressing,the desirability of undertaking more than one research prohlem ~ h i l working e for the doctorate. The student gains this same experience when different problems are undertaken for the master's and doctor's degrees, either at different schools or in the same place. In connection with variety in research experience it is particularly important to select several proposed research projects, carry on extensive literature searches and propose methods of attack. Then the beginning college teacher will be in a position to embark on a new field of his own choosing when he leaves the particular field and tutelage of his research director in graduate school. SEEKING A TEACHING OPENING
If an investigation of the academic field seems desirable, a prosp&tive Ph.D. man will be called upon to consider the type of school for which he feels particularly qualified. In the large university he will be expected to be particularly active in research and his eventual advancement will be dependent largely upon the character of the results which he and his research students achieve. In the medium-sized university or liberal arts college there will be an emphasis on the dual role of teaching of some undergraduate courses, together with an accompanying interest in research, which is often the result of his direction of a limited number of beginning research men, as well as from his own laboratory efforts. A third category includes the large numher of liberal arts and junior colleges where small departments require almost full emphasis on teaching. In these situations a fortunate relationship often exists betxveen an inspiring teaching personality and a potentially able student which has led an unusually large number of these students to proceed to graduate school^.^ Besides the type of school there are the environmental factors of location to consider which involve one's personal desire to live in an urban center where some of the larger schools are located or to live in some smaller community. The location of the school affects the character of the school, for in an urban school there is an impersonal relationship with students, while in the more intimate setting there is usually more personal contact with students. According to the type of school selected, the beginning opening may be that of (1) a postdoctoral research fellowship of limited tenure but offering more prepawtory research experience until a teaching opportunity arises in some institution, (2) a limited-term instructorship in many of the larger universities where the incumbent serves as an apprentice aide in teaching to a regular staff member and is able to pursue some independent research. At the end of his term the department may be able to offer a better appointment, but usually an opening in another school must he sought, (3) . , . an instructorshin or even an assistant urofessorship 8 sTEELU~, J.R., u~oienoeandpublicpolicy; s ~ ~ ~ mmts, Wa'sshington,D.C.,1947, Vol. 111, p. 19.
in many medium and small schools where the teaching often involves rather heavy loads in the larger elementary courses in general, analytical, and organic chemistry. As a special variation of the latter type there are the rare cases in which the new Ph.D. man may be assigned a lecture course dealing with selected topics in his special field and given to mature students while the major portion of his duties are devoted to the establishment of his own research program in which several research students are available as aides. To discover the existence of openings depends somewhat upon chance in the American system, although there are desirable methods of approach open to a candidate. One of the most fruitful channels occurs when the candidate's research professor receives a direct inquiry from another school asking for suggestions or nominations for a given opening and these are usually directed to those graduate centers which are known to train potential college teachers. Every university appointment.s office or large department office maintains a formal set of credentials for each of its graduates and these have useful assembled information and recommendations which expedite initial negotiations. For the chemist the use of Chemical and Engineering News, the regional employment clearing houses of the American Chemical Society, or the employment clearing house a t a national meeting of the Society brings about many contacts between employer and candidate. This involves a minimum of personal effort and initial interviews may profitably be undertaken some time in advance of actual availability. And finally there is the direct application approach in which an informative initial letter of inquiry is addressed to the head of the department of chemistry in a chosen group of schools. Such a canvass may bring mutually desirable results as in the instance of a young Ph.D. who decided he would like to teach in a college located in any one of three adjoining states. He collected the names of the heads of all departments of chemistry in these states and presented an outline of his undergraduate and graduate training, his experience in the army, his full personal history, his list of references, his teaching and research fields, and a good picture. Fortunately, in one of the schools approached, a state university, an opening existed for a person of his qualifications and after due investigation he received the appointment. The final step in obtaining a position usually involves a personal interview,. preferably a t the school being considered. This becomes a two-way affair since the department members are appraising the applicant but even more the young Ph.D. should determine answers to some questions for himself. From the standpoint of the department, teaching and lecturing ability may he judged if the opportunity to present a seminar-lecture is arranged; the candidate's research expectations and requirements may be discussed; and his personal qualifications may receive a tentative appraisal. From the st,andnoint of the candidate there are many - ~ertinent points which should be observed or discussed directly, , ~ ~ D ~ ~ ~ such as: the present staff, its training, interests, and
-
~.~~ ~
~
~
~
A
AUGUST. 1950
All 43 institutions Low minimum Low maximum High minimum High maximum In seven shte universities
425
Professor
Associate Projessor
3,300 3,900 9,000 15,000 4000-13,000
2800 3400 6000 9000 4000-9000
Assistant P~oje.ssw
Instmetor
2200 2500 4500 7000-10,000 3000-6750
1800 2000 3600 6000-8000 2400-6000
age distribution; the possible interest in science of the state universities and privately controlled institutions, student body; the quality and extent of the library; both large and small, were considered. The survey was equipment and physical facilities in which to work; thorough since it covered 13,528 full-time faculty people the expected teaching load and research opportunity; and a student body of 277,246. Two trends are noteliving conditions in the community; actual conditions worthy. Between the two-year periods 194647 and of academic freedom; contract stipulations for the 194849 there has been an increase in average salaries present and practice in granting tenure and in annuity varying from 11 per cent to 16 per cent according to and group insurance participation; possibility of sum- rank, and the average expenditure per student for inmer teaching; attitude toward consulting and spon- structional salaries has increased in the past year from sored research. A new teacher cannot expect guaran- $379 to $413. Even in these institutions the accomtees as to his future relationship to an institution but panying data indicate a wide variation from the low the possibility of growth and advancement in the minimum and the low maximum a t one end of the scale to the hieh minimum and high maximum a t the higher oosition under consideration should be assessed. end. since these data cover all fields of teaching, it SALARIES may be interpreted with the realization that science Teachen' salaries, generally, have increased only 20 t,eachers in the various ranks are known to command to 30 per cent since 1940 while living costs have risen salaries considerably above the minimum, particularly nearly 60 per cent. This disparity explains the lessened in those institutions with rather low salary levels. number of scientists who have been attracted to a teachThus from many aspects the teaching profession is an ing career. From the actual salary standpoint it is re- expanding vocation because increasing enrollments will ported that two-thirds of all science instructors in require additional faculty personnel and for the past higher education, including groups with long experience few years vacancies have not been filled. Even though received salaries of less than $4000 a year in 1946. Yet the favorable salaries of industry and government have young men who have just completed tbeir doctorate attracted many scientists, there are evidences that the can command more than this a t the start of employ- universities and colleges are making great efforts to imment in industry or in government positions. prove their position in a competitive sense. In the fuRecently, many schools are showing progress in ture the young man who seeks a position with freedom meeting this situation, as evidenced by the very in- in research, desirable environmental conditions, a certeresting survey of instructional salaries in 42 selected tain satisfaction in the ultimate success of the students universities and colleges for the academic year 194849.' under his guidance, and a reasonable salary should This particular group of institutions was selected be- again investigate possible teaching opportunities. Such cause they are recognized as leaders in the realm of good an improved situation in which a sufficient number of salary practices and would serve as comparative models highly trained chemists enter the teaching field'will for other colleges and universities. In the choice, assure the caliber of the chemists of the future, coming geographical distribution, as well as representation of as they do from the smallest and most remotely situated colleges to the large and renowned universities. A.A.U.P. Bulletin, 34, 778 (1948).
