Article Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc
Exposure to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Using GuidedInquiry-Based Activities with Silica Aerogel To Promote High School Students’ Motivation Wichai Lati,† Darapond Triampo,‡ and Supan Yodyingyong*,† †
Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand Department of Chemistry and Center for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
J. Chem. Educ. Downloaded from pubs.acs.org by UNIV OF LOUISIANA AT LAFAYETTE on 04/25/19. For personal use only.
‡
S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of materials on a nanometer scale. These fields of study aid the developments of innovative technologies that play an important role in our everyday lives. Enabling students to learn these topics makes learning more meaningful and helps prepare them for future technologies. This study aimed to investigate the effects of learning activities about nanoscience and nanotechnology on students’ motivation. The designed activities were based on guided-inquiry learning using silica aerogel as the nanomaterial. This material has many interesting properties such as high thermal insulation, low acoustic velocity, very low density, very high specific surface area, etc., which are influenced by structures on the nanometer scale. A variety of teaching methods, including learning with models, multimedia, hands-on activities, and guided-inquiry learning, were implemented to promote the students’ motivation. There were 28 grade 12 science students sampled for this purpose. Three actual methods were adopted to determine the effectiveness of the learning activities, including questionnaires implemented before and after the activities, students’ self-assessments, and semistructured interviews at the end of the activities. The results from the questionnaires showed that the students were highly motivated by the nanoscience and nanotechnology learning activities. The students’ self-assessment and interviews revealed that the learning activities encouraged the students to learn by allowing them to experience various teaching materials. The students became more interested in finding more information about silica aerogel and other nanomaterials used in daily life. KEYWORDS: Colloids, Industrial Chemistry, Materials Science, Nanotechnology, Surface Science, Demonstrations, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Hands-On Learning/Manipulatives, High School/Introductory Chemistry
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INTRODUCTION An important goal of teaching science is making sure that the students have scientific knowledge from science-based concepts.1,2 To address this goal, cognitive components are usually not enough to encourage students to gain knowledge effectively. Affective components are also needed. Motivation is one of the affective components that is a natural response behavior to learning tasks and opportunities. It plays an important role in the students’ processes of conceptual change and learning achievement3,4 and is an important factor for the students’ learning success.5 The motivation to learn science is beneficial for students because it supports cognitive components by engaging in behaviors such as being curious, questioning, seeking advice, drawing evidence-based conclusions, and making decisions.6 Therefore, to achieve the goal of learning science effectively, the learning activities should involve both cognitive and affective components. Learning topics and activities are factors that influence students’ attention, curiosity, and engagement.7 Providing learning activities to the students with a challenging and © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
interesting topic and relating it to their daily lives can promote the students’ motivation and enhance their conceptual understanding of and attitude toward learning science.8−10 In recent years, silica aerogels have drawn much interest in both science and technology because of their extraordinary properties and their existing and potential applications in a wide variety of technological areas. Silica aerogel is a nanostructured material with promising properties such as very good thermal insulation, high specific surface area, high porosity, low bulk density, low dielectric constant, superhydrophobicity, and optical transparency.11,12 With its many extraordinary properties and their existing and potential applications in a wide variety of technological areas, these properties of silica aerogel will be used as a tool in motivating students in learning science, catching their attention by curiosity. The properties of this material are influenced by Received: June 9, 2018 Revised: April 13, 2019
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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the structures at the nanometer scale.13 The fast-growing applications of silica aerogel in real life result from the research and development of nanoscience and nanotechnology (NST). Some properties of silica aerogel such as superhydrophobicity, low bulk density, optical transparency, and superinsulation can easily be demonstrated and will fascinate students who experience this porous space-age material. Although there is much scientific research on silica aerogel, in education, science teaching or NST teaching with the use of silica aerogel has not been widely integrated into the classroom. Therefore, to integrate nanoscience and its technological applications into the classroom and to enhance students’ motivation for nanoscience and nanotechnology, this study was based on guided-inquiry-based activities on the prominent properties of silica aerogel and designed learning activities with many challenging and interesting topics of nanoscience and nanotechnology and with concepts related to the students’ everyday life and prior knowledge. The specific research question follows: What are the students’ motivations after participating in nanoscience and nanotechnology learning activities?
activities in science” where there is no grading nor scoring of any concern for students. Only the questionnaire regarding factors of performance goal and achievement goal was removed from the modified questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed with five motivation factors. (1) Intrinsic goal orientation involves the goals of students who need to be motivated to participate in a learning task by themselves because of their reasons; these motivating reasons include a student’s desire to tackle challenging or interesting tasks, the student’s curiosity, and the student’s desire to master a subject. (2) NST learning value refers to the students’ perceptions of the importance and value of learning NST, which makes them want to express their thinking and problem-solving competency and experience working in NST-related activities in daily life. (3) Self-eff icacy refers to the students’ belief in their ability to accomplish a learning task, whether difficult or easy. (4) Elaboration strategies refer to the students’ perception of strategies that help them connect new information to prior knowledge and integrate this information into long-term memory by using paraphrasing, summarizing, analogy-making, or note-taking. (5) Learning environment refers to the students’ perception of the classroom environments that influence the students’ learning, such as learning strategies, teaching methods, and teacher−student interaction.
Students’ Motivation
Motivation is defined as a theoretical construct to explain the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behaviors, especially goal-directed behaviors.7 It is a force, stimulus, or influence, like a need or desire, that causes the students to decide to act or do something in order to attain or accomplish results.14 Motivation involves goals that provide the impetus for purposeful action with an intended direction.15 Motivation can be affected by various factors, such as teachers, learning content, learning strategies, learning environments, and students’ interest.4,16,17 Student motivation is an essential element of a quality education.18 If students are motivated, they pay attention. They begin working on tasks immediately, they ask questions and volunteer answers, and they appear to be happy and eager to learn.19,20 Bruinsma21 showed that motivation has the power to reinforce the efforts of goal-achieving learners. Jarvela and co-workers22 revealed that students who have high and low motivation need a different motivational approach to activate their cognitive self-regulation. Students with different motivation levels present different levels of persistence and engagement in the course and goal/outcome.23 The measurement of student motivation cannot be observed directly. It must be inferred from actions such as the choice of tasks, persistence, effort, and achievement, or from what students say about themselves.17 There are some questionnaires that were developed to measure student motivation in learning, such as the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ),24 the Students’ Motivation toward Science Learning (SMTSL) questionnaire,25 and the Science Motivation Questionnaire II.26 In this study, the questionnaire for measuring students’ motivation was adapted from the MSLQ and the SMTSL questionnaire24,25 and translated into Thai. The MSLQ was mainly designed for measuring students’ motivation in general, while the SMTSL questionnaire was designed to specifically address the students’ motivation in learning science. In this study, the learning activities were designed as the learner development activities in science.27 All SMTSL questionnaires were used except for questions that concern grading and scoring, because the designed learning activities were implemented in the Thai “learner development
Learning Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
“Nano” is a prefix that has been known worldwide as a fundamental revolution in modern science and technology. Nanoscience is the study of natural phenomena of a scale in the range of nanometers (1−100 nm), while nanotechnology is the creating and arranging of atoms, molecules, or particles to create, design, characterize, produce, and apply nanomaterials for use in daily life. These emerging fields are known as nanoscience and nanotechnology (NST).28,29 In studies of NST, a better understanding of the nanoscale is important and leads to the understanding of how matter is constructed and how properties of materials reflect their components, atomic compositions, shapes, and sizes. These understandings are important for the development of the science and engineering studies of a country, and these fields of studies aid the developments of innovative materials and technologies that lead to new applications across diverse fields such as food, medicine, aerospace, energy, agriculture, textile, and transportation.30,31 Although NST has been known in the science and engineering fields for more than 30 years, it is not regarded worldwide as science education. Real-world challenges of knowledge and skills still have not been adequately applied to education. Therefore, the teaching and learning of this emerging field are required for the modern educational system.28,32−35 Silica Aerogel
This study emphasizes the use of silica aerogel as an example of a recent development from nanoscience and nanotechnology. Silica aerogel was first studied by Prof. Steven Kistler of the College of the Pacific, Stockton, in the 1930s. He produced silica aerogel with the idea of replacing the liquid phase of the gel by a gas with only a slight shrinkage of the gel.12 The conventional preparation of silica aerogel requires a B
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Figure 1. Schematic overview of the steps for synthesizing hydrophobic silica aerogel powder.
powder. It clearly shows that silica aerogel is a nanoporous structure consisting of interconnected three-dimensional networks of silica nanoparticles.
complicated, time-consuming and energy-intensive process. It starts with gelation, followed by washing, aging, surface modification, and solvent substitution, and ends with supercritical drying. The complicated and time-consuming nature of the overall process and the energy intensiveness of the supercritical drying, as well as the high cost of raw materials, have severely restricted the industrial preparation and worldwide use of silica aerogels. Recently, with developments in the understanding of NST, there have been several concepts that have made it possible to produce silica aerogel more costeffectively. The typical silica aerogel consists of ∼95% air. Because of these structural characteristics, silica aerogel possesses extraordinary properties such as high specific surface area, low thermal conductivity, low dielectric constant, superhydrophobicity, and low acoustic velocity.36 These unique properties of silica aerogel make it a suitable candidate for a variety of advanced applications. Currently, silica aerogels have been used or considered for use in laser experiments, thermal insulation, sound insulation, catalyst support, oil spill clean-up, drug delivery systems, aerospace devices, transparent superinsulating windows, waste management, and pesticides.12,37−39 In this study, we synthesized that the silica aerogel powder in our lab could be modified by using the method of Bhagat and co-workers.40 The steps for synthesizing silica aerogel powder in this regard are show in Figure 1 (see the Supporting Information). Figure 2 shows the field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) image of synthesized silica aerogel
Properties of Silica Aerogel
Thermal Insulation. The thermal insulation property of silica aerogel can be demonstrated by filling a box (10 cm × 10 cm × 2 cm) with silica aerogel powder and then placing the box on a hot plate. Students can observe the temperature difference between the surface of the hot plate and the surface of the silica aerogel as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Thermal insulation property of silica aerogel powder.
Figure 3 demonstrates that silica aerogel is a very good thermal insulation material. It can reduce the temperature of the hot plate from 177.0 to 49.7 °C (127.3 °C reduction) with an approximate thickness of only 2 cm. The reason that silica aerogel has a low thermal conductivity is that it has low density and high porosity. The low density of silica aerogel reduces the effect of thermal conduction, while the nanoporosities reduce the effect of thermal convection. Superhydrophobicity. The superhydrophobic property of silica aerogel can be demonstrated by dropping water on silica aerogel powder or on a surface that is coated with silica aerogel powder, such as paper, wood, textile, etc. Figure 4 shows the drop of water on a silica aerogel-coated surface. It stays in a spherical shape and does not wet the surface. Organic Absorption. The silica aerogel is a hydrophobic porous material. Therefore, it can be used as an absorbing material for solving environmental problems such as an oil spill or accidental spillage of various organic liquids, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 2. FESEM image of the synthesized silica aerogel powder. C
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participants were informed about the purposes of this study and were asked to provide consent. Data Collection Tools
To answer the research question of this study, the questionnaire, self-assessment, and semistructured interviews were used to assess students’ motivations. These data collection tools were validated by five experienced researchers in the chemical education field. (1) Students’ motivation questionnaire was used to investigate the students’ motivation in nanoscience and nanotechnology. It consisted of 23 items with a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = no opinion, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree). The developed questionnaire consists of 5 motivation factors: intrinsic goal orientation (7 items), NST learning value (4 items), self-efficacy (5 items), elaboration (3 items), and learning environment (4 items). The overall Cronbach’s α of this questionnaire was 0.95. (2) Students’ self-assessment consisted of an open-ended question and was used to assess the students’ opinion after their participation in the learning activities. (3) Semistructured interviews were based on the types of motivation. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed according to factors of motivation.
Figure 4. Superhydrophobic properties of silica aerogel demonstrated using (a) a drop of water on silica aerogel powder and (b) a drop of water on silica aerogel-coated paper.
Figure 5. Demonstration of the absorption of used oil by silica aerogel powder.
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Description of Instructional Activities
The learning activities were developed to promote the students’ motivation in nanoscience and nanotechnology using a guided-inquiry-based learning approach. The developed learning activities consisted of 6 activities. Activity 1 was designed as an introduction to nanoscience and nanotechnology to help students to understand and realize the size of things on the nanoscale level. Activity 2 was designed to help students understand the effect of “nanosize” (nanoparticles). The designs of activities 3−6 were based on the synthesis and applications of silica aerogel. Activity 3 was about the synthesis of silica gel using a sol−gel technique. This activity aims to help students to understand the nature of chemical reactions that start from the interactions between small molecules and other molecules, forming larger molecules or particles. The design of activity 4 was based on the hydrophobic property of silica aerogel. This activity was designed to help students to understand the concepts of superhydrophobicity and a self-cleaning surface. The design of activity 5 was based on the application of silica aerogel as an organic absorbent material for solving the problem of oil spill. In addition, last, activity 6 was designed to help students to understand the concept of superinsulation, which is one of the
METHODS
Research Design and Participants
A one-group pretest and post-test research design was used in this study. First, the students took a pretest of students’ motivation questionnaire and students’ understanding (see the Supporting Information). After completion of the learning activities, the students took a post-test motivation questionnaire, a post-test students’ understanding, a self-assessment, and a semistructural interview. Changes in the students’ motivation from the pretest to the post-test were analyzed and explained in a quantitative manner with supporting data from the students’ self-assessment and interview. There were 28 participants of grade 12 from a unisex female public high school located in Bangkok, Thailand, recruited. They were recruited on the basis of a convenience sampling technique.41 These activities were implemented as the “learner development activities in science program” which is a part of the school curriculum. Data were collected continuously in a school day during a period of 6 weeks. Before the data collection,
Table 1. Students’ Motivation Results on the Pre- and Postactivity Administration of the Questionnaire Mean Scores (SD),a N = 28 Factor Intrinsic goal orientation NST learning value Self-efficacy Elaboration Learning environment Total
Pre 2.97 2.98 2.70 2.79 2.83 2.85
(0.76) (0.63) (0.71) (0.80) (0.82) (0.66)
Post 3.65 3.87 3.76 3.60 3.88 3.75
(0.59) (0.55) (0.47) (0.53) (0.42) (0.42)
Disagree,c %
Agree,d %
Mean Difference
t-Test Values
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
0.68 0.89 1.06 0.81 1.05 0.90
6.463b 6.790b 7.934b 7.024b 8.333b 9.689b
28.57 30.36 42.59 37.78 42.86 36.43
6.63 5.36 2.86 2.38 3.57 4.16
27.55 32.15 20.00 15.10 25.00 23.96
56.63 71.43 60.00 53.57 67.86 61.90
a Scores had a range of 1−5 with 1 = “Strongly Disagree”, 2 = “Disagree”, 3 = “No Opinion”, 4 = “Agree”, and 5 = “Strongly Agree”. bSignificantly different at the significance level of 0.05. cCombined percentages of students who “Strongly Disagree” or “Disagree”. dCombined percentages of students who “Strongly Agree” or “Agree”.
D
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Table 2. Example Student Self-Assessment Answers by Category %, N = 28
Example Student Answers
Understanding: Gaining more understanding
82
Motivation: Intrinsic goal orientation (interesting in finding more information)
89
“I gain more understanding about what is NST and how to utilize nanomaterials in daily life.” “I gain more understanding about what silica aerogel is and its application.” “I am interested in finding more information about silica aerogel and its applications.”
Categories
NST learning value (awareness of the importance of NST)
43
“I am interested to search for more data on the risks and benefits of various nanotechnology applications used in everyday life.” “I am aware to how important the development of nanotechnology is for everyday life in the present and the future.” “I am aware to how the learning nanoscience and nanotechnology is important, how the risks of using nanotechnology applications are for everyday life.”
Table 3. Interview Analysis Representations and Example Sentences Indicating Students’ Motivation Factors 1
2
Intrinsic Goal Orientation: Remind students of what they have learned Search additional information about silica aerogel Share some concepts with friends NST Learning Value: Learning nanoscience and nanotechnology is important
Students, N
Example Student Statements
3/6
“When I observed some things such as a panhandle, it reminded me to think of what I have learned in the learning activities, such as the concept of thermal insulation of silica aerogel.” “After I participated in the learning activities, I searched more information about the applications of silica aerogel.” “I did not continue to search more information, but I shared some concepts that I have learned with my friends.” “I think that learning nanoscience and nanotechnology is important, because it made me aware of the risks of using nanotechnology that I did not know before.”
1/6 1/6 6/6
3
Elaboration: Try to relate the concepts to what I already know
6/6
4
Learning Environment: The activities are interesting and provide learning by doing
6/6 6/6
“I think that learning nanoscience and nanotechnology is important, because it truly helps me see the integration of knowledge as well as the development of materials.” “During the activities, I used prior knowledge to help me understand new concepts. For example, in the self-cleaning surface activity, I learned by relating to the concept of polarity, which I learned in a chemistry class.” “I will participate in activities such as these again in the future, because it was not boring, and it allowed me to learn by myself.” “I am willing to participate in these activities in the future, because most of activities are fun and not boring.”
the NST learning activities. The intervention showed an improvement in students’ motivation by one level.
very interesting properties of silica aerogel. Details of the learning activities are provided in the Supporting Information (Table S3). A group of 4−5 students was randomly divided and assigned for participating in approximately 90 min of learning activities, each with various instructional methods including models, videos, hands-on activities, and guidedinquiry learning.
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The Results of Students’ Self-Assessment
The students’ answers from an open-ended question (“How do these learning activities affect the students’ learning of nanoscience and nanotechnology?”) were used to assess their opinion in supporting the findings from the motivation questionnaire. The students’ responses were analyzed using inductive approach. All of students’ answers were coded and calculated (in percentages) as presented in Table 2. Table 2 shows that 89% and 43% of the students’ answers had a positive opinion about the motivation factors of intrinsic goal orientation and NST learning value, respectively, and 82% had gained more understanding about NST after their participation in the NST learning activities.
RESULTS
Findings from Students’ Motivation Questionnaire
The students’ scores for the pre- and postmotivation questionnaires were analyzed with the use of paired-samples t-test to identify the mean differences between the pre- and postmotivation scores at the significance level of 0.05 for each factor. Before conducting the paired-samples t-test analysis, the pre- and postdata of the students’ motivation scores of all factors were of a normal distribution by the Shapiro−Wilk test (p > 0.05). Table 1 shows the comparison of mean pre- and postmotivation scores. The paired-samples t-test analysis indicated that the differences between the pre- and postmotivation scores were statistically significant in all cases (p < 0.05). The percentage of students’ answers as “disagree” for all motivation factors was decreased from 36.43% (premotivation) to 4.16% (postmotivation), whereas the percentage of students’ answers as “agree” was increased from 23.96% (premotivation) to 61.90% (postmotivation).42 This indicates that students had increased motivation toward learning nanoscience and nanotechnology after participating in
Findings from Students’ Interviews
After finishing all learning activities, six volunteer students were interviewed separately for 15−25 min with interview questions that asked each factor of the motivation questionnaire in parallel. The representation of the analysis of the interview and example sentences that indicate students’ motivation are presented in Table 3. The students’ statements indicated that they had more interest or motivation in nanoscience and nanotechnology. They revealed that the learning activities promote them to think more during learning, share concepts with friends, and search for additional information about silica aerogel (after the learning activities). They suggested that the learning activities helped them to see real applications of nanoscience and nanotechnology. E
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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the nanomaterials used in daily life, and wanted to participate in future activities related to NST. This implied that the students had an increased motivation to learn NST.
Furthermore, they mentioned that all activities were interesting, fun, and not boring.
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DISCUSSION The findings from the students’ questionnaires, students’ selfassessments, and students’ interviews revealed that the NST learning activities are effective in promoting the students’ motivation toward learning NST. Their motivations in all categories examined were increased after participating in the learning activities. The percentage of students’ answers as “Disagree” was decreased from 36.43% to 4.16%, and the percentage of students’ answers as “Agree” was increased from 23.96% to 61.90%. This might be due to the learning approach and learning activities that supported the students’ motivation to learn science. The concept of each activity was adapted to the students’ basic concept levels that they had already learned in classes. The learning activities were implemented on the basis of guided-inquiry learning, which allows students to construct their knowledge by themselves through designing the methods, communicating, and drawing conclusions,43 and provided a variety of teaching methods including learning with models, multimedia, and hands-on activities. These results were similar to the findings of previous studies showing that guided-inquiry and learning with challenging and interesting topics have the potential to foster students’ interest, motivation, and understanding in learning science.8,9,44−46 The result from the students’ understanding test (see the Supporting Information, Table S4) showed that students increased their understanding after participation in the learning activities. They obtained the highest learning gain on the topic of the applications of nanomaterial based on silica aerogel, activities 4−6 (61.94%), while they obtained a low learning gain on the topic of introduction and significance of NST, activity 1 (31.87%). The normalized learning gain for the whole understanding test was at the medium level (0.46).47 This showed that these intriguing properties of the silica aerogel help capture students’ attention through curiosity and motivate students in learning nanoscience and nanotechnology. In the learning activities, students participated in the collaborative learning environment with hands-on activities and guided-inquiry learning based on the promising properties of silica aerogel. In activity 3, students were able to practice increasing their inquiry abilities through learning about how to synthesize silica gel, which is the first step to help them to truly understand what the aerogel and nature of chemical reactions are. Students were asked guiding questions. Then, they inquired to answer the questions by participating in the experiments. They were encouraged to discuss for constructing knowledge using the guiding questions. Activities 4−6 were designed to engage the students in the interesting properties of silica aerogel such as its abilities to self-clean a surface, to clean-up oil spills, and to be used as superinsulation. Moreover, the learning activities were not only designed to promote the students’ understanding of the principles and applications of NST but also to help them understand the risks and benefits of NST in daily life, which is an essential concept of the “big ideas” suggested for teaching NST.48,49 As the findings show, the students implied that the provided contents were appropriate for their basic concept level and not difficult. They could apply their prior knowledge to comprehend new concepts, were interested in and enjoyed doing the learning activities, were interested in finding more information about
CONCLUSIONS This study provided learning activities based on the guidedinquiry learning approach with silica aerogel to promote students’ motivation to learn about NST. The silica aerogel was used because it has many interesting properties that might engage the student in learning. This material is an example of a development from the NST study. The developed learning activities consisted of 6 activities. Activity 1 was an introduction to NST. Activity 2 was about the effect of the “nanosize” (nanoparticles). In addition, the designs of activities 3−6 were based on the synthesis and applications of silica aerogel. The findings from the students’ questionnaires, students’ self-assessments, and students’ interviews revealed that the NST learning activities are effective in promoting students’ motivation toward learning NST. Their motivations in all categories examined were increased after participating.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
The Supporting Information is available on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435.
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Synthesis and safety precautions of silica aerogel powder, motivation questionnaires, interview questions, the nanoscience and nanotechnology instructional activities, findings from students’ understanding test, mean scores and percentages of students’ answer in each levels of motivation, and examples of students’ knowledge construction (PDF, DOCX)
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. ORCID
Wichai Lati: 0000-0001-7720-7841 Supan Yodyingyong: 0000-0001-6368-1171 Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was partially supported by the Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University (Grant A13/2555); NSTDA-EGAT joint program (Grant FDA-CO-2561-7467TH); Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Center for Innovation in Chemistry (PERCH-CIC); Commission on Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University; and the Thailand Research Fund (Grant IRG5980007).
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REFERENCES
(1) American Association for the Advancement of Science. Benchmarks for Science Literacy; Oxford University Press: New York, 1994; pp 3−13. (2) National Research Council. National Science Education Standards; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, 1996; pp 22− 24.
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00435 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
