Anal. Chem. 1907, 5 9 , 162R-174R (186Y) Wengenroth, K.; Bauer, H. W.; Israel, 0. W.; Winnen, K. M. J . Aerosol Sci. 1988, 77, 285-9. (187Y) Weser, T.; Stierstadt. K. 2. Phys. B: Condens. Matter 1985, 59, 253-8. _. (188Y) Wirojanagud, W. Diss. Abstr. I n t . B 1984, 45, 987. (189Y) Yokouchi, Y.; Mukai, H.; Fujii, T.; Ambe, Y. Kokuritsu Kogai Kenkyusho Kenkyu Hokoku 1985, 79, 21-36 (Japanese); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 703, 146408f. (190Y) Yoshlzumi, K.; Asakuno, K. Atmos. Environ. 1988,2 0 , 151-5. (191Y) Zecha, H. Raste Kautsch. 1988. 3 3 , 92-6 (German); Chem. Abstr. 1988, 704, 225692t. (192Y) Zolensky, M. E.; Mackinnon, I. D. R. J . Geophys. Res., D: Atmos. 1985,90, 5801-8.
___
I NTERCOMPARISON OF TECHNl W E S
(18a) Kaye, 8. H. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K., Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Voi. 2, pp 81-100. (19a) Kaye, B. H. Powder Techno/. 1988,4 6 , 245-54. (20a) Korotkova, G. A.; Potreibenikov, G. K.; Uruspaeva, B. K. I n Prokhazhdenie Hem. Chastfts Veshchestvo; Ermatov. S. E., Ed.; Kaz. Gos. Univ.: Alma-Ata, USSR; 1983; pp 19-27 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 103, 61 148w. (21a) Kurinnoi. V. I.; Berezhnoi, A. I. Izv. Vyssh. Ucheben. Zaved., Khim. Khim. Tekhnol. 1985,28, 109-12 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 702, 205953). (22a) Laapas, H. Freiberg, Forschungsh. 1985, A700, 99-108 (German); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 703, 2 1 7 2 4 ~ . (23a) Lenth, R. V. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K., Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Voi. 2. pp 103-11. (24a) Nikolakakls, I.; Pilpel, N. Powder Techno/. 1885,45, 79-82. (25a) Peleg, M.; Normand, M. D.; Rosenau, J. R. Powder Techno/. 1986, 46, 209- 14. (26a) Petroli, J.; De Jonge, J. Hung. J . Ind. Chem. 1985, 13, 323-35 (German); Chem. Abstr. W88, 104, 70987s. (27a) Rajpai, S.; Hua, L.; Chang, C. R.; Beddow, J. K. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K. Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Vol. 2, pp 193-204. (28a) Ropp, R. C. Am. Lab. 1885, 77(7), 76, 78-81, 83. (29a) Sellens, R. W.; Brzustowski, T. A. Chem. Phys , Processes Combust. 1984,7 111-7 114. (30a) Sellens, R. W.; Brzustowski, T. A. Combust. flame 1888, 65, 273-9 (31a) Theriault, J. M.; Boivin, G. Appl. Opt. 1984,2 3 . 4494-8.
(12) Alex, W. Aufbefe/t.-Tech. 1984. 25, 415-22 (German); Chem. Abstr. 1984, 707,232356~. (22) Almond, E. A. Powder Metall. 1988,2 9 , 119-24. (32) De Yong, L. V.; Wilson. G. R o c . Int. fyrotech. Semin. 1988, 7 7 , 81-101. (42) Donovan, R. P.: Locke. B. R.; Osburn, C. M.; Caviness, A. L. J. Electrochem. SOC. 1985, 132, 2730-8. (52) Goos, T. Katalkatoty Krekinga i tseo/ity, M. 1984, 153-7 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 703, 59919e. (62) Koehier, M. E.; Provder, T. Polym. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1985, 5 3 , 256-60. (72) Lagutkin, M. G.; Kutepov, A. M.; Ternovskil, I . G.; Baranov, D. A. Izv. Vyssh. Uhebn. Zaved., Khlm. Khlm. Tekhnol. 1985,28(9), 105-8 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1885, 703, 197953n. (82) Matsuda, H.; Maklno, H.; Watanabe, M. R o c . Int. Conf. Nectrost. Precip., 2nd; Matsuda, S., Ed.; APCA: Pittsburgh, PA, 1985; pp 964-71. (92) Padalko, V. M.; Novlchkova, V. Ya.; Kaishev, V. A,; GaMar, A. I.Zavod. Lab. 1984. 50(10). 34-6 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1984, 102, 65852~. (102) Seville. P. K.; Coury, J. R.; Ghadiri, M.; Ciift, R. Part. Charact. 1984, I , 45-52. (112) Tazun, U.; Farhadpour, F. A. Part. Charact. 1985,2 , 104-12.
COMMUNITION
DATA ANALYSIS
(IC) Asthana, A.; Upadhyaya, G. S. I n t . J. Refract. Hard Met. W85, 4(3),
( l a ) Avnir, D.; Farin, D.; Pfelfer, P. J . Co//oid Interface Sci. 1985, 703, 112-23. (2a) Bezdek. J. C.; Solomon, K. H. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K., Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton. FL, 1984; Vol. 2, pp 113-25. (3a) Brock, J. R. J. Aerosol Sci. 1985, 76,273-8. (4a) Caimi, F. M.; Schmalz, M. S. Proc. SPIE-Int. SOC. Opt. Eng. 1985. 573, 21-30. (5a) Chang, C. R.; Beddow, J. K.; Yin, M. J.; Vetter, A. F.; Butters, G.; Smith, D. L. 0. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K. Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Voi. 2, pp 223-42. (6a) Durney, T. E.; Meloy, T. P. I n t . J. Miner. Process. 1988, 76, 109-23. (7a) Durst. F.; Macagno, M. Powder Techno/. 1988, 4 5 , 223-44. (Ea) Ehrllch, R.; Full, W. E. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K., Ed.; CRC: Boca Ratan; FL. 1984; Vol. 2, pp 89-101. (9a) Gayot, A.; Warnier, A.; Traisnel, M.; Caumes, M. Expo.-Congr. I n t . Techno/. Pharm ., 3rd; Assoc. Pharm., Galenlque Ind.: Chatenay-Maiabry, France, 1983; Voi. 1, pp 55-62 (Fr); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 703, 200757). (loa) Gotoh, K.; Kamamoto, M.; Meioy, T. P. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K. Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Vol. 2, pp 15-22. ( l l a ) Goo, A.; Ramakrkhnan, P.; Beddow, J. K. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K. Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL. 1984; Vol. 2, pp 183-91. (12a) Hanisch, J.; Schmok, K.; Schubert, H.; Wedekidd, M. Freiberg, Forschungsh. 1985, A700, 109-19 (German); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 703, 2 1764v. (13a) Heidenreich, E. Powder Techno/. (Pap. I n t . Symp.); Iinoya, K., Beddow, J. K., Jimbo, G.. Eds.; Hemisphere: Washington, DC. 1984; pp 65-71. (14a) Hill, S. C.; Rushforth, C. K.; Benner. R. E.; Conwell, P. R. Appl. Opt. 1985,24, 2380-90. (15a) Hua, L.; Beddow, J. K.; Vetter, A. F. Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K., Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Vol. 2. pp 127-34. (Ma) Inoue, T. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K. Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Vol. 2. pp 51-67. (17a) Kanatani, K. I n Part. Charact. Techno/.; Beddow, J. K., Ed.; CRC: Boca Raton, FL, 1984; Voi. 2, pp 31-50.
PARTICLE SIZE STANDARDS Harbolt, 8.; Saake, J. T. U. S. Patent 4595350, June 17, 1986. Scarlett, 8. Part. Charact. 1985. 2, 1-6. Timm, E. E.; Leng, D. E. European Pat. Appl. 173518, March 5, 1986. Wilkinson, M.; Hearn, J.; Karpowicz, F.; Chainey, M. Part. Charact. 1986,3,56-62.
(lb) (2b) (3b) (4b)
146-8. (2c) Barnard, W. J.; Bull, F. A. Part. Charact. 1985,2, 25-30. (3c) Brostow, W.; Rogers, H. C. Meter. Chem. f h y s . 1985, 12, 499-505. (4c) Buriak, V. 6.; Smurova, I.N.; Udov, Y. M. Gorn. Zh. 1985,(12), 13-15 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1088, 704, 7 2 2 2 8 ~ . (5c) Gundorov, I.M.; Blinichev, V. N.; Smirnov, N. M. Tear. Osn. Khim. Tekhnol. 1988, 2 0 , 117-20 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1986, 704, 187623m. (6c) Heimuth, A.; Whitlng. D. A.; Dubovoy, V. S.; Tang, F. J.; Love, H. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub/. 1988,897 (Blended Cem.), 106-27. (7c) Knlght, P. C.; BrMgwater, J. Powder Techno/. 1985,44, 99-102. (8c) Kostarev, I.P.; Kochegarov, G. G. Izv. Sib. Otd. Akad Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim. Nauk 1988,(3), 113-19 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1988, 705, 622631.1. (9c) Kuhlmann, K.; Ellerbrock, H. G.; Sprung, S. Zem.-Kalk-Gips, Ed. B 1985,3 8 , 169-78 (German); Chem. Abstr. W85, 703, 41538~. ( I O C ) Rock, H. G. 2em.-Kalk-olps, Ed. B 1985, 3 8 , 606-8 (German); Chem. Abstr. l98& 704, 38783m. (1IC) Sprung, S.; Kuhlmann, K.; Eilerbrock, H. G. Zem.-Kalk-Gips, D . B . 1985,3 8 , 528-34 (German); Chem. Abstr. 1985, 703, 165267a. (12c) Steranka, P. O., Jr.; Soo, S. L. J. Powder Bulk Solids Techno/. 1863, 7(3). 1-4. (13c) Sundback, C. 2.; Beer, J. M.; Sarofim, A. F. Symp. (Int.) Combust.. (Proc.) 1985, ZOth, 1495-503. (14c) Tangsathitkulchai, C.; Austin, L. G. Powder Techno/. 1985, 42, 287-96. (1%) Tapper, G. I.; Lindberg, N. 0. Acta Pharm. Suec. 1988,2 3 , 47-56. (16c) Tenchov, 6.; Yanev, T. J. ColloM Interface Sci. 1988, 7 7 1 , 1-7. (17c) Rakaev, A. I.; Bilenko, L. F.; Zadorozhnyi, V. K.; Baitarshinov, R. A. Obogashch. Rud (Lenlngrad) 1985, (3), 5-8 (Russian); Chem. Abstr 1988, 704, 37404b. ( 1 8 ~ )Vlvatpanachart, S.; Nomura, H.; Miyahara, Y. Powder Techno/., (Pap. I n t . Symp.), Ilnoya, K., Beddow, J. K., Jimbo, G., Eds.; Hemisphere: Washington, DC, 1984; pp 473-80. (19c) Zisselmar, R.; Kellerwessel, H. Part. Charact. 1985, 2 , 49-55. (20c) Zlatorunskaya. G. E. Obogashch. Rud (Leningrad) 1985, (2), 5-7 (Russian); Chem. Abstr. 1988, 104, 113467s.
Forensic Science T. A. Brettell and R. Saferstein* New Jersey State Police, Forensic Science Bureau, Box 7068, West Trenton, New Jersey 08625
It is the aim of this article to present a concise survey of articles appearing in publications that primarily appeal to forensic practitioners. To accomplishthis objective, we have focused our attention on the following journals: Journal of 182 R
0003-2700/87/0359-162R$01.50/0
Forensic Sciences, Journal of the Forensic Science Society, Forensic Science International, Journal of the Candadian Society of Forensic Science, Arson Analysis Newsletter, Analytical Toxicology, and The Microscope, as well as
0 1987 American Chemical Society
FORENSIC SCIENCE
m o M s A. I)r*h(l )s Technical Dke*or 01 the New Jersay State Mice CBnbai R e g b a1 Labmatory in West Trenton. N J He received his B.A. degree (1973) from h e w University. Madison. NJ. a M.S. degree (1975) from Lehgh University. Belhlehem, PA, and a FhD. degee in amlyticai chemir try from Villanova Universiiy. Villanova. PA 3 (1987). After serving as a research assist-& ' ant in the Biikmistry Department 01 T e m pie Uniwrrsiiy W i c a i Schwl. he joined the New Jersey State Police Forensic Science Bureau in 1976. He has also been a mem ber of the facuity of Me New Jersey Governor's School in Me Sciences from 1985 to 1987. h..Ereneil holds memberships in mS Amencan Gmmical Society. me Noriheastern Association of Forensic ScienHrts. MMAttanti~Associati~nof Fwensic Scientists. Me Forensic Sclence Society. and the Delaware Valley Chromatography Forum. His present research interests include chromatography and mas5 spectrometry
Rlsh.rd Salmtdn is Chef Fmensic Scientist 01 the New Jersey State Police Laboratoly. He received B.S. and M.A. degrees from me C i College 01 New Y a k in 1963 and 1966. respectively He received his Ph.D. degree in chemishy from Me Cny University 01 New Y a k in 1970. FTbr to his coming to Me New Jersey State POllce in 1970. he was employed as a forensic chemlst wilh the U S . Treasury DBpartment (1964-1968) and served as an analyiicai chemist with Shell Chemical Co. (1969-1970). [k. Saterrteh is the author of a n u m k 01 tecrnkal papers Covering a variety 01 forensic topics. He has also wvmen a M on the subiect tnled Crimimiisfics: An I"trcd"ct,o" to Forensic science (RenticeHaiI 1987) and has edited F m s i c Science Handbwk. VoC umes I and I 1 (Prentice-HBII. 1982. 1988). reference texts dealing with im patant forensic science topics. Dr. Saferstein currently serves on the editorhl board of the Journal of Fwensic Sciences and is a member of the A m erica" Chemical Society. the American Academy 01 Forensic Science. the American Microchemical Society. the Forensic Science Society. the Canadian Society of Forensic Scientlsts. Northeastern Association of Forensic ScC entists. and MM-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists.
I
Chemical Abstracts Selects: Forensic Chemistry. Our survey encompasses the period from October 1984 through December 1986. Because of normal delays in the abstraction of journal articles by Chemical Abstracts, some work covering this period will inadvertently be omitted. Hopefully these references will he included in the next biennial review. The format selected for this survey divides coverage into three distinct areas: Drugs and Poisons, Forensic Biochemistry, and Trace Evidence. Within the scope of each of the areas, articles have been selected to describe current forensic science practices in analytical chemistry and to outline relevant forensic science research interests. T o keep our discussion concise and meaningful, we have limited our survey to drugs regulated under the United States Controlled Substances Act, ethanol, and common poisons. Furthermore, to eliminate unnecessary duplication of effort, citations of articles appearing in Clinical Chemistry, the Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and other pharmaceutical journals have been avoided. We believe that ample coverage of these journals is provided within the pharmaceutical and clinical chemistry reviews planned for this journal. I t is recommended that interested readers consult these sections in order to obtain a complete survey of the drug-ahuse subject.
DRUGS AND POISONS Ethanol and Volatiles. The determination of ethanol in blwd, breath, and other body fluids continues to he an area of intensive study in forensic science. The in vitro accuracy and precision of four infrared breath-alcohol analyzers, the Alcotest 7010, BAV Verifier, Intoxilwer 5o00, and Intoximeter 3000, were studied, and the statistical evaluation of these studies indicated that the instruments met or exceeded the performance requirements modified from the US.Department of Transportation's standard for quantitative evidential breath-alcohol analyzers ( I ) . Evaluations of other breathalyzer instruments have been reported (2,3) including the evaluation
of field trials with the Alcolmeter pocket model breath-alcohol screening device (4). The effect of radio frequency interference (RFI) on evidential breath testing utilizing the Breathalyzer Models 900 and 900A has been examined (5). Experimental studies were carried out to investigate the accuracy, precision, and reliability of silica gel tubes relative to the capture and subsequent gas chromatographic analysis of alcohol derived from simulator vapors and breath samples (6). A long-term field experience with breath ethanol collection employing silica gel and subsequent headspace gas chromatography revealed good overall correlation between the direct and delayed ethanol determinations (7). 1-Propanol was found to he the most suitable internal standard in the headspace gas chromatographic analysis of breath ethanol after absorption onto silica gel traps (8). Studies into the estimation of blood alcohol concentrations arising from inhalation of ethanol vapor from subjects occupationally exposed to the vapors have been reported (9,ZO) as well as a study to determine the blood alcohol concentrations reached in human subjects after consumption of alcoholic beverages in a social setting (11). Studies were performed to evaluate two Abbott TD ethanol assays and a comparison with gas chromatography of ethanol in serum, urine, postmortem blood, and blood from intoxicated driven (12). Small amounts of blood (200 rL) were capable of being analyzed for ethanol with an autosampler intended for liquid injection into a gas chromatograph modified to serve as an automatic headspace sampler by replacing the syringe with a 100-rL gas-tight syringe and shortening the needle that normally enters the vials for sampling (13). A comparison of ethanol concentrations of whole blood, plasma, and supernatant has been revorted (14). The tolerance of alcoholicswas studied hy determining their blood alcohol concentration with the Du Pant Automated Clinical Analyzer (ACA) (15)and the incidence of ethanol and acetone in the blood and urine of victims of sexual assault has been studied (16). A single nomograph has been designed for solving Widmarks equation that incorporates weight in pounds or kilograms, variable Widmarks factor, blood alcohol levels from 0.01 to 0.50 g/l00 mL, and different concentrations of alcoholic beverages (17). Postmortem blood alcohol concentrations have been comp e d to corresponding levels in vitreous humor and urine (18) and an evaluation of urine and vitreous humor alcohol levels as indexes for hlwd alcohol levels in autopsy cases has been reported (19). The value of urine tests for determining an equivalent blood alcohol concentration has heen reviewed from a historical, theoretical, and practical perspective (20). A biochemical investigation of vitreous humor has been reported with specific application to forensic medicine, especially in relation to alcohol (21). The rate of elimination of ethanol in humans and the factors that may influence the rate have been reviewed (22). An analysis of the presence of alcohol among 406 cases of viblent accident or suicides (excluding road traffic accidents and drug overdoses) showed a basic association between alcohol and accident as opposed to suicide (23). The time course of tolerance development, the factors affecting tolerance development, and the possible mechanisms leading to the tolerance to ethanol has been discussed (24). A retrospective survey has also been carried out of all cases where death had resulted from the complications of excessive alcohol consumption in order to determine what constituted a lethal level of alcohol intake (2.5). The effect of low prescribed blood alcohol levels (BALs) on traffic accidents among newly licensed drivers in Australia has been reported (26). A gas chromatographic method has been described which is suitable for the analysis of low-molecular endogenous volatiles, specifically, ethanol, methanol, and acetone, in breath (27). Gas chromatography was used to determine that elevated breath concentrations of acetaldehyde associated with a drug-alcohol flush reaction do not invalidate the use of enforced breath-alcohol devices for evidential purposes (28). Experimental testing demonstrated that clinical concentrations of halothane are too low to affect the Camic breath analyzer and there is no interaction between ethanol and halothane in breath analysis (29). The production of carbon monoxide (CO) in cadavers has be.en studied by analyzing CO, total hemoglobin (Hb), and carboxyhemoglobin (HhCO) in the blood and reddish disco. lored body cavity fluids of cadavers which had not been exANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. VOL. 59, NO. 12. JUNE 15. 1987
* 163R
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posed to fire (30). The stability of carbon monoxide in blood was studied under various conditions of storage using both spectrophotometricand gas chromatographicflame ionization detector methods of analysis (31). Two Co-oximeters and a headspace gas chromatography method were compared for the analysis of carbon monoxide in postmortem blood (32). Determination of carbon monoxide in blood by gas chromatography using a thermal conductivity detector has been described (33). Factors affecting the loss of carbon monoxide from stored blood samples have also been reported (34). An application of derivative spectrophotometry to the determination of carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) in blood has been reported (35)and the determination of HbCO in heated blood illustrating the utility of derivative spectrophotometry in finding the discrepancies in results from different methods of HbCO analysis has been reported (36). An evaluation and modification of a microdiffusion method for the emergency determination of blood cyanide using Conway cells has been presented (37). The liquid chromatographic determination of strychnine in stomach contents has been accomplished by use of a reversed-phasecolumn and an isocratic mobile phase (38). Strychnine levels were determined in postmortem blood, urine, bile, liver, kidney, stomach contents, small and large intestines, and brain by using a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionization detector (39). A typical case of suicidal strychnine poisoning has been presented along with the review of the pathophysiology and epidemiology of strychnine poisoning (40). A method for the determination of arsenic in whole blood using furnace atomic absorption spectrometry has been presented (41). A reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method has been developed for the analysis of carbaryl in postmortem samples (42). Common techniques for analyzing ethchlorvynol (Placidyl) by colorimetry and gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) have beeB evaluated along with the thorough examination of mature effects (43). Quantification of trichloroethanol in blood and tissues by electron capture gas chromatographyin a case involving a fatal overdose of chloral hydrate resulted in a blood trichloroethanol concentration of 1700 mg/L (44). Gas chromatography was used to determine toluene concentrations of postmortem blood, lung, liver, and brain in an acute toluene poisoning case (45). Bromochlorodifluoromethane has also been determined in several solvent abuse cases (46,47). Cannabinoids. A technique has been described for the identification of cannabinoids from marihuana which employs a partition system of two-dimensional descending thin-layer chromatography (TLC) (48). Chloroform extracts from marihuana and other green plant materials have been analyzed spectroscopicallyby circular dichroism for the determination of cannabinoids (49). The analysis of A9-tetrahydrocannabinol-cannabinol mixtures by second-derivative ultraviolet spectromety has been reported (50). A comparison of the analysis of A -tetrahydrocannabinol capsules by highperformance liquid chromatography and capillary gas chromatography showed good correlation and low relative standard deviations (51). Thin-layer chromatography has been used to determine A9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Indian hemp (52). The cannabinoid content of cannabis grown in the Danish island of Bornholm has been determined and compared to cannabis plants grown in other areas (53). A study of the characteristics of cannabis seeds and the influence of environmental conditions on the content of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in cannabis plants grown in Italy has shown that cannabis plants can be divided into fiber-type and drug-type plants. The fiber-type plant does not exceed 0.4% of THC while the drug-type plant usually contains up to 5% of THC (54). A high-performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) method has been used for the simultaneous determination of free cannabinoids and cannabinoic acids in marihuana cigarettes, tar, and ash (55). A dynamic headspace procedure has been described for the analysis of headspace volatiles of cannabis resin which uses a Tenax GC adsorbent trap to trap volatile components for subsequent analysis by gas chromatography with a capillary column (56). This procedure has been used to compare cannabis samples from different origins using chromatographic patterns assessed numerically by means of a retention index matrix (r-matrix) (57). The physical and chemical features of cannabis plants grown in the United Kingdom of Great 164R 9 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 59, NO. 12, JUNE 15, 1987
Britain and Northern Ireland from seeds of known origin have been reported (58). An entomological identification of the origin of imported cannabis has also been described (59). The pharmacology of cannabinoids in humans has become a very important topic in forensic toxicology. A selective introductory review of the cannabis literature has been presented which includes the relative psychoactivities of cannabis constituents, the disposition and distribution of THC and its metabolites, the relative psychoactivities of THC metabolites, and the use of cannabinoid concentrations in physiological fluids in interpretations of the significance of cannabis-induced effects (60). Several methods have been reported in the literature for the identification and determination of the major metabolites acid) of THC ( 11-nor-Ag-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic in urine. Among the analytical techniques used to identify this metabolite have been radioimmunoassav (RIA) (61). thin-layer chromatography (62),HPLC-ECD (&),'HPLC'and RIA (64), GC/MS (65-68), TLC and enzyme immunoassay (EMIT) (69, 70), EMIT and RIA (71), GC/MS and EMIT (72).and EMIT. RIA. and GC/MS (73). A comDarison of five methods for the' analysis of the major metaboliies of AS-THC in urine has been reported (74) and a comparison of six cannabinoid metabolite assays has also been published (75). Solid-supported reagents have also been used in the determination of cannabinoids in plasma (76) and urine (77). Detection of A9-THCin saliva using methods employing RIA (78) and GC/ECD (79) has also been reported. The determination of cannabinoids in blood and urine after passive inhalation of cannabis smoke has also been studied (80-82). The stability of AS-THCin whole blood stored in plastic and glass containers has also been studied using GC/MS (83). Morphine and Related Narcotics. The analytical characterization of Isoheroin has been presented with the analytical data (MS, NMR, IR and GLC) showing possible differentiation between heroin and isoheroin (84). The quantification of heroin in illicit heroin samples has been accomplished by high-performance thin-la er chromatography (85)and reversed-phase HPLC (86). The YH nuclear magnetic resonance of heroin's D ring has been presented (87). Thermospray LC/MS has been applied to the analysis of a complex mixture of phenanthrenic materials present in illicit heroin (88). Methods for determining the origin of illicit heroin samples have been described (89,90) and comparisons of illicit heroin samples have been reported which have used HPLC combined with ultraviolet and fluorescence detectors (91) and HPLC and GC (92). The characterization of illicit heroin by the analysis of impurities has been reported using HPLC (93) and capillary GC has been used to elucidate the structures of illicit heroin manufacturing byproducts (94). 06-Monoacetylmorphinehas been synthesized directly in good yield from morphine with the analytical data used to characterize the product being reported (95). The major p olysis roducts of heroin have been identified by MS and gC and H ' nuclear magnetic resonance (96) Opium alkaloids have been separated and detected with the use of capillary GC (97),HPLC (98,99),and circular dichroism (100). The indirect determination of alkaloids has been accomplished by an ion-pair extraction with CO(SCN)*~and measuring the cobalt concentration by atomic absorption spectrometry (101). Chemiluminescence detection was used in combination with flow injection analysis to determine morphine at the femtomole range by its reaction with Mn04in acidic solution (102). The detection of morphine and other derivatives of morphine in urine has been accomplished by several techniques including TLC and HPLC (103), capillary GC and MS (104), HPLC (105),TLC (106),GC/MS (109, and RIA, EMIT, GC and GC/MS (108). A rapid test for the detection of morphine and its metabolites in urine has been developed which consists of adsorption of the analytes on cation-exchangeresin-coated plastic rods which can easily be transported to the laboratory for analysis (109). Codeine and glutethimide have been determined in postmortem blood and urine by GLC (110) and morphine and its metabolites have also been determined in plasma and urine using HPLC with electrochemical detection (111). A study to determine the specificity of a new RIA procedure was performed on 23 drugs of forensic science interest in spiked whole blood and urine specimens (112). An improved method for the simultaneous determination of
FORENSIC SCIENCE
morphine, codeine, and dihydrocodeine in blood by HPLC with electrochemical detection has been reported (113). Unusually high blood morphine concentrations from fatal cases have also been documented (114-116) and the simultaneous quantifications of morphine and some of its metabolites in various biological media have been done by GC/MS (117). The use of thin-layer immunoassay (TIA) for the detection of opiates in postmortem brain, kidney, liver, and lung tissue has been developed (118). The determination of morphine in hair of heroin addicts has been accomplished by HPLC with fluorometric detection (119) and the analysis of morphine and codeine in vitreous humor and hair has been done by GC/MS (120). Cocaine. Literature concerning the taxonomy and alkaloid content of the coca plant has been examined (121). Cocaine has been differentiated from other local anesthetic drugs and common adulterants in illicit cocaine samples by TLC (122) and HPLC (123-125). A feasibility study of the application of air sampling and ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS) for the detection of heroin and cocaine concealed in letter mail showed that a unique IMS signature is associated with each type of drug and that a number of IMS peaks can be used as markers for the presence of drugs (126). A kinetic study of the urinary excretion of cocaine and its metabolites in humans has been published (127). Cocaine and its metabolites have been detected in urine by various techniques including a polarization fluoroimmunoassay (FIA) (128), ion-pair HPLC (129), GC-FID (130), GC-chemical ionization selected ion monitoring after Extrelut extraction (131),GC/MS (132,133),and HPLC, TLC, and GC MS (134). The disposition of cocaine in various biological uids from a fatal poisoning has been reported (135) and GC and UV spectrophotometry have been used to determine concentrations of cocaine in various biological media from a man whose death was due to ingestion of cocaine (136). GC/MS has been used to determine brain concentrations of cocaine and benzoylecgonine from fatal cases (137)and other toxicological data has been presented relating to cocaine-associated deaths (138-140). The detection of cocaine metabolites has also been reported in perspiration stains, menstrual bloodstains, and hair (141). Amphetamines. The analytical techniques for the detection and identification of amphetamines and amphetamine-like substances in nonbiological samples have been reviewed (142). Capillary GC has been used to separate various stimulants of forensic interest (143) and HPLC has been used to resolve enantomeric amphetamines and related drugs of forensic interest (144-146). Infrared spectrophotometry and HPLC have been used to identify 3,4methylenedioxyphenylisopropylamine and its N-methyl and N-ethyl homologues (147), and NMR, GC/MS, and UV spectrophotometry have been used to identify a new street (148). Impurdrug, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine ities in illicit amphetamines have been identified by a number of different techniques (149-151) and the significance of GC impurity patterns obtained from illicitly prepared amphetamine specimens has been discussed (152). The detection of amphetamine in air by solid adsorbent preconcentration and GC analysis has been reported (153). A screening test for methamphetamine in human urine has been devised which involves a brief extraction from a urine sample with an Ad-Tip (ODs-silica minicolumn), washing, eluting with modified Simon's reagent, and coloration with carbonate buffer (154). Another screening method for urinary methamphetamine has been reported which uses the latex agglutination inhibition reaction test (155). GC/MS has been used to analyze for metamphetamine and amphetamine in body materials (156) and a comparison of extraction methods for methamphetamine and its metabolites in tissues has been reported (157). The determination of methamphetamine and amphetamine in a skeletonized body buried for five years has been accomplished by using chemical ionization mass fragmentography (158). The clinical and pathologic features of two cases of intravenous amphetamine abuse are compared to previously reported occurrences of primary fungal cerebritis
x
(159).
Barbiturates. A collaborative study to investigate the retention reproducibility of barbiturates in HPLC with a view to establishing retention data bases for drug identification has been published (160). Separation of underivatized barbitu-
rates by capillary column GC has been studied (161, 162). Screening for barbiturates in vitreous humor by the EMIT -st Serum enzyme immunoassay has been proven useful in forensic toxicology (163). Analytical tests have suggested that ethanol inhibits the percutaneous absorption of phenobarbital in vivo (164). GC/MS was used to identify and GC was used to determine amobarbital and glutethimide in bone tissue (165) and to determine phentobarbital concentrations in bone marrow (166). Miscellaneous Drugs and Poisons. Trace analysis of benzodiazepine drugs in blood using deactivated Amberlite XAD-7 porous polymer beads and fused silica capillary column GC-ECD has been reported (167). HPLC retention characteristics of 21 benzodiazepines and some of their metabolites have been examined on both silica and ODS-silica packing materials (168). Determination of nitrazepam and its main metabolites in urine by TLC and direct UV densitometry has been reported (169). The efficiency and cleanliness of an ether extraction for benzodiazepines in blood samples treated with aqueous ammonia has been compared with other methods for the purpose of HPLC analysis (170) and an evaluation of the EMIT-Tox Enzyme Immunoassay for the analysis of benzodiazepines in serum has been reported (171). The occurrence of chlordiazepoxide degradation products in sudden deaths associated with chlordiazepoxide overdosage has been reported (172) as well as the frequency of occurrence of benzodiazepines in blood samples of Danish drivers (173,174). Methods for the isolation and identification of Psilocin from hallucinogenic mushrooms have been described (175, 176) and the determination of psilocybin and psilocin in psilocybe mushrooms has been done with HPLC (177,178). RIA has been used to measure body fluid levels of LSD (179, 180). LSD has been detected by other methods such as HPLC (181),fluorescence spectrophotometry (182),and RIA, HPLC, and capillary GC/MS (183). The identification of fentanyl derivatives by capillary GC, IR, MS, and NMR has been reported (184) and fentanyl levels have been measured in various biological fluids from an overdose victim by GC MS using selective ion monitoring (185). A method has een developed that allows for the differentiation and quantification of fentanyl and 25 analogues and homologues in illicit preparations using a nonpolar fused silica capillary column in the splitless mode interfaced with a 63Nielectron capture detector (186). The electron impact mass spectrum of phencyclidine has been studied (187)and the quantification of phencyclidine, its metabolites, and derivatives has been accomplished by GC with nitrogen-phosphorus detection (188). HPLC and GC/MS were used in the identification and quantification of phencyclidine pyrolysis products formed during smoking (189). Methyl phenidate has been detected in biological fluids by TLC (190), GC/MS (191), and GC (192). Mescaline concentrations were determined in blood, liver, and urine from an overdose victim (193). A rapid method for the isolation and identification of the precursors and reaction products of the clandestine manufacture of methaqualone and mecloqualone has been described (194). A new solid phase extraction method has been studied to extract methadone from small amounts of biological samples, by using little disposable columns prepacked with reverse-phase sorbents (195). A review of clandestine drug synthesis has been published which includes major synthetic methods and other pertinent data (196). The stability of some drug and poisons in putrefying human liver tissues has been reported (197), as well as drug levels found in cases of fatal self-poisoning (198). D r y concentrations have been estimated in extremity cadaveric muscle, blood, and liver in 142 fatal cases where drug overdose was implicated (199). The incidence of drugs in various populations and studies has also been reported (200-205). General Procedures. Forensic science applications of diffuse reflective infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) has been reported with specific application to the direct analysis of some tablets, capsule owders, and powders for drugs of abuse (206,207) 'H and PC NMR methods for the identification of "look-alike" drug preparations have been presented (208). The impact of biological matrix, drug concentration, and method of isolation on the detectability and variability of retention index values of drugs of abuse by GC has been studied (209). Evaluations of fused silica capillary columns for the screening of basic drugs in biological materials have been reported (210, 211) and the use of dual-column
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fused-silica cap GC in combination with various detectors has been describe (212-214). Wide-bore capillary columns are also gaining popularity in the use of routine toxicological screening for drugs of abuse (215-218). HPLC has been widely used for the identification of drugs of forensic interest (219-223) and the potential application of narrow-bore HPLC columns to the analysis of drugs of abuse has been appraised (224, 225). RIA screening and GC/MS confirmation of whole blood samples have been described for the analysis of drugs of abuse (226) and a report of recent applications of the use of mass spectrometry for the forensic detection of drugs of abuse has been discussed (227). Supercritical fluid chromatography has been used for the analysis of polar drugs using small-particle-packed columns with mass spectrometric detection (228). A recent paper has described the identification of the primary ions associated with the mobility peaks of several illicit drugs using ion-mobility spectrometry MS (229). A computer search system for the identification o drugs using a combination of TLC, GC, and UV spectrophotometry has been developed (230) and the influence of biological matrix on the retention behavior and identification in TLC has been investigated (231). The performance of the Tox-Lab TLC system has been assessed for the detection of drugs and has been compared to GC drug screening procedures (232,233). An evaluation of drug extraction procedures by adsor tion on C18bonded silica phases has been described (2347. The retrieval of analytical data and substance identification in systematic toxicological analysis by the mean list length approach has been reported (235).
d
FORENSIC BIOCHEMISTRY The potential application of DNA technology to forensic genetic typing problems is considerable. This technology may allow virtual identification of an individual. However, at this time there are still significant barriers to overcome. Probes need to be made readily available. Sensitivities need to be improved and population data need to be generated (236). Many highly polymorphic minisatellite loci can be detected simultaneously in the human genome by hybridization to DNA minisatellite probes. DNA was isolated from 4 year old bloodstains and semen stains and di ested to produce DNA fingerprints suitable for individual idientification (237). Experiments demonstrated that DNA of a quality sufficient for hybridization analysis can be recovered from dried bloodstains as much as 3 years old. DNA of high molecular weight prepared from dried blood samples can be used for identification purposes (238). A sufficient quantity of DNA can generally be isolated from spermatozoa. The pattern of restriction fragment length polymorphisms obtained from DNA isolated from spermatazoa can be used for identification purposes (239). In a disputed immigration case, blood DNA analysis of a boy showed that 25-30 specific brands matched those of his claimed mother. The odds of this occurring in an unrelated person were 1in 8 X 10” (240). Human male and female dried blood specimens were readily distinguished by analysis with a Y-chromosome-specificDNA probe (241). The effect of various fixatives on Y-chromosome detection in blood smears was examined (242). An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for determination of human a-fetoprotein was devised and applied to the identification of fetal bloodstains (243). Isotachophoresis, a technique to separate components by constant current electrophoresis, was used to differentiate between bloodstains of male, female, menstrual, bovine, and ovine bloods (244). Identification of phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) patterns was shown to be useful for differentiating between closely related members of the deer family for species identification purposes (245). A radioimmunoassay technique for testosterone was applied for differentiating anlered males from females (246). The detection of blood by luminol reagent may be enhanced by viewing the chemical reaction through a “starlight scope” (247). Microspectrophotometry has been applied to the examination of bloodstains. Absorption spectra were recorded before and after treatments of the blood with Takayama reagent (248). Studies were conducted on ABH grouping of ammonical extracts of bloodstains by absorption-elution(249). Commercially available blood grouping antisera and antihuman globulin serum were serologically evaluated for their applicability to bloodstain antigen determinations (250,251). 166R
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A sensitive and reliable microplate hemagglutination assay for the detection of AB0 bloodgroup alloantibodies in bloodstains has been described (252). An ELISA technique has been successfullyused for the identification of Km(3) in bloodstains. This antigen was identified in stains as old as 17 months (253). ABH blood groups in saliva were determined by ELISA (254, 255). The grouping of blood and semen samples yielded no inconsistent results (256). The distribution of secreted blood group substances in dried semen stains and the stability of these substanceshave been studied. The blood group substance concentrations in semen were found to vary throughout a wide range of titer. Blood group substances in semen were found to be stable when the stains were stored at -20 “C, 4 “C, or at ambient laboratory temperature in a dry state (257). AB0 typing has successfully been performed on urine samples (258). Various stains, with the exception of sweat and urine, were successfully Lewis-typed (259). Good agreement was found for Gm and Km allotypes between vitreous humor and blood (260). Divall has reviewed the application of electrophoresis to the analysis of blood and body fluid stains, hair, etc. in forensic studies (261). The application of isoelectric focusing in forensic serology has also been reviewed (262). A number of different amphoteric buffer constituents were evaluated with regard to their effectiveness in isoelectric focusing for protein separations (263). A procedure for the simultaneous identification of blood, species origin, ABH group, and isoenzyme types has been described (264). The electrophoretic properties of phosphoglucomutase (PGM) were studied (265). Enhanced separation of PGM was achieved by the addition of a separator to an isoelectric focusing gel (266). Typing of PGM was carried out by isoelectric focusing (267). A method has been described for a reliable ultra-thin-layer polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing technique for the subtyping of PGM in semen and bloodstains (268). Wedge-shaped polyacrylamide or agarose gels were used to subtype PGM in semen stains and vaginal swabs (269). A conventional agarose gel electrophoretic method was described for typing PGM, Esterase D (EsD), or glyoxalase I (GLO I) as single systems (270). The simultaneous separation of GLO I, EsD, and PGM by starch gel electrophoreses has been reported (271). Simultaneous electrophoretic determinations of PGM subtypes, adenosine deaminase (ADA), erythocyte acid phosphatase (EAP), and adenylate kinase (AK) in blood has been carried out (272). The simultaneous isoelectric focusing of EAP and EsD was accomplished and applied to bloodstains (273). EsD has been typed by isoelectric focusing (274-276) as was erythrocyte acid phosphatase (EAP) (277). A method using a double origin sample application system was developed for the simultaneous separation of ADA, AK, and carbonic anhydrase I1 by agarose gel electrophoresis (278). A “new” allele in the EAP system has been reported. The allele has been designated ACPk (279). Gc typing on bloodstains has been shown to comparable in performance to PGM typing. Much less bloodstained material had to be used for Gc typing (280). The typing of Gc was examined by isoelectric focusing (281, 474). The importance of using 6 M urea for extracting bloodstains in order to achieve higher success rates in Gc typing has been demonstrated (282). The Gc concentration can vary across a particular bloodstain. Gc has a tendency to diffuse to the edge of a stain. Bloodstains were sucessfullytyped for Gc over a period of 69 days (283). The typing of Gc and EsD in bloodstains has been accomplished by an isoelectric focusing procedure (284). Gc was typed sucessfully by using immunofixation electrophoresis on dried bloodstains stored at room temperature up to 43 months (285). Isoelectric focusing methods for Gc were reviewed and protocols for forensic science analysis were recommended (475). The successful typing of transferrin in bloodstains was accomplished by isoelectric focusing (286). Discontinuous polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was shown to be a rapid and reliable method for typing haptoglobin (Hp) in bloodstains (287). The detection limit of haptoglobin variants in bloodstains by electrophoresis was improved by blotting with antihaptoglobin (288). An electrophoretic procedure for the combined phenotyping of GGPD and PGD has been reported (289). Transferrin and plasminogen were phenotyped in dried bloodstains by isoelectric focusing (290). The determination of polymorphic complement component C3 phenotypes in
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bloodstains was accomplished by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate followed by immunofixation (291). Complement C6 allotype was detected by isoelectric focusing followed by immunological detection (292). An isoelectric focusing method for t in hemoglobin (Hb) in bloodstains has been described ( 2 9 3 y Bfoodstains as old as 6 months were correctly typed for a2-HS-glycoproteinby a blotting technique in conjunction with isoelectric focusing (294). Antibodies of the IgD class have been measured in bloodstains. IgD can be regarded as a marker in antibody rofiling in bloodstains (295). Pi subtypes were determine in bloodstains by isoelectric focusing (473). Spermatozoa can persist for several hours in the mouth, the longest time recorded was 13 h. The comparison of results from saliva samples and mouth swabs has indicated that spermatozoa were found more often in the saliva (2%). A color reagent for the detection of choline and spermine in a semen stain was evaluated (297). Prostaglandins were analyzed for the purpose of characterizing semen. Semen was detectable nal swab taken 58 h after intercourse and was readily %&?le for at least 6 h on rectal and skin swabs (298). The separation of vaginal and seminal acid phosphatase was achieved by isoelectric focusing. The interconvertibility of seminal acid phosphatase into vaginal acid phosphatase was demonstrated by neuramindase treatment (299). An ELISA assay for P30 has been described (300). A study showed P30 to be a useful semen marker particularly in cases of azoospermia. Investigation of y-glutamyl transpepidase found it to be an unsuitable marker for characterizing semen in forensic science work (301). A novel sperm-coating antigen, MHS-5, from the human seminal vesicles has been reported. By use of MHS-5 monoclonal antibody an ELISA test was developed sensitive to 1ng of semen protein (302, 303). Results from semen-free, postcoital swabs indicate that vaginal PGM and EsD activities depend on the donor and do not depend on the time since intercourse itself. Observations from the postcoital swabs with semen suggest that it is the presence of semen that stimulates the production or increase in activity of vaginal PGM (304). Semen-freeanal swabs have been typed for PGM activity. In the attempt to type PGM for semen on anal swabs, the phenotypes of the female donor may be expected to interfere (305). High levels of y-glutamyltranspeptidase activity occur in human seminal plasma. Electrophoretic analysis of the enzyme was reported along with the frequencies of its three types (306). The polymorphism of cy-L-fucosidase was investigated from samples of placentae and semen using isoelectric focusing (307). The determination of secretor swabs by means of an electronic data processing-hema glutinininhibition test was shown to be accurate (308). Amy ase levels were determined for semen and saliva samples as well as for their corresponding stains. High levels of amylase in fluid saliva resulted in hi h levels being detected in saliva stains. elevated in seminal fluid, but this is Amylase levels can an exception. Even when the amylase levels in semen are high, these levels are much lower than those found in both fluid saliva and saliva stains (309). Assay procedures for pepsin and rennin-like enzyme activities were developed as a means of identifyin gastric fluid containing samples (310). Low quantities of L n z oylecgonine and immunological equivalents were detected in extracts from perspiration stains, menstrual bloodstains, and hair using radioimmunoassay (311). Population frequencies were presented for ABO, Gm, Km, Le, ADA, AK, and Hp (312,314),Rhesus, M, Se, and Pep A (312),CA, 11 (312,315,316),EAP (312-314), EsD (312-315), GLO 1 (312, 313, 315), PGM (312-314, 31.9, and Gc (314). Population studies were conducted for transferrin (317) and HLA (318). The Bf gene frequencies have been determined in a Japanese population (319).
if
f
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TRACE EVIDENCE Petroleum Products. With the increasing use of synthetic products in fuels and chemicals, it appears that there are potential problems in characterizin a material as a petroleum product (320). Techniques for the fetection and identification of trace hydrocarbon residues from fire debris were described (321). A comparison of charcoal absorption and direct headspace analysis utilizing cryogenic focusing was undertaken with respect to the detection of trace quantities of accelerants usually associated with arson-related fires. The authors concluded that the cryogenic method has distinct advantages
over charcoal absorption (322). Hydrocarbons collected on and eluted off a charcoal trap were separated on solid phase extraction columns to divide the sample into alphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions. The fractions were analyzed by GC (323). A charcoal tube absorption/elution procedure has been described for the collection of volatiles from fire debris (324). An automated thermal absorption device has been found to work well for screening a large number of specimens related to arson investigation. The technique makes use of a Tenax adsorbent to trap hydrocarbon materials (325). A rapid screeningtest for accelerants in a steam distillate has been described (326). A wide-bore capillary column often displayed increased resolution over a comparable packed column when performing heated headspace analysis of arson accelerants (327). Wide-bore capillary columns have been successfully used for analyzing petroleum products in fire debris (328). The detection of arson accelerants using static headspace sampling and GC with dual wide-bore bonded capillary columns was reported. The extra column gives the analyst additional information with no loss in sensitivity of reproducibility (329). Flour and calcium carbonate powders were shown to be effective for recovering accelerants from concrete (331). The technique of three-dimensional fluorescence was employed in the analysis of unused motor oils and selected machine lubricants. The technique allows for direct comparison of two samples to help determine whether they could have a common origin (332, 333). The rate of oil degradation in cars was examined by IR spectroscopy. Significant changes in the intensity of some absorption bands were observed (334). IR has also been suggested for distinguishing oil stains extracted from clothing (335) and to differentiate oil samples having different degrees of decomposition (336). Tests have been conducted simulating noncollision-related fires in vehicles. In noncollision-related fires that are not suppressed and where the vehicle is extensively damaged, there is probably little value in collecting samples from vehicles for laboratory analysis (337). Parameters associated with determining the flash point of a liquid are discussed. These parameters must be carefully controlled if flash point data are to be meaningful (338). Transmission electron microscopy studies of particulate carbon from smoke deposits allowed the deposit to be associated with different types of fuels (477). Explosives a n d Lachrymators. Data obtained with tandem mass spectrometrywere reported for ions derived from several explosives and related compounds (339). RDX, plasticizer, and rubber binder were separated by selective solvent extraction and filtration and the extracts analyzed by IR (340). Spectral data have been obtained for the primary explosive triacetone triperoxide (341). A series of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) metabolites was studied by combined HPLC-mass spectrometry (342,343). Metabolites of T N T found in the urine of rats have been studied (344). Adhesives used in the construction of explosives were analyzed by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A single composite spectrum was generated to represent more than 1500 spectra from each pyrogram (345). Absorption characteristics as well as microcolumn recovery and cleanup procedures suitable for use with a variety of absorbents have been examined for a variety of explosive compounds (346, 347). Thermal energy analysis approached the sensitivity of electron capture for the analysis of explosives, but the former was more selective enabling low nanogram levels of explosives in hand swabs to be detected (348). Water-solubleinorganic explosive compounds can be characterized and identified by their crystal shape as they recrystallize from a drop of water on a microscope slide. Further characterization can be made by other optical properties (349). Common inorganic explosives can also be readily recognized by fusion methods (350). 2Chloroacetophenone (CN) and 0-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) are common chemical agents used as lachrymators. Spectral data and a GC/MS method were presented to differentiate and identify CN and CS (351). Gunpowder and Primer Residue Detection. Antimony levels consistent with an individual having fired or handled a fiiearm may be intercepted by a hand held in close proximity to a fired weapon (352). Shotgun pellets have been analyzed by neutron activation analysis for several trace elements. Antimony distribution around a shotgun hole has been evaluated for distance determinations, and residues removed ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 59, NO. 12, JUNE 15, 1987
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from hands have been analyzed by neutron activation analysis for primer residues (353). On the basis of elemental analysis, filter paper appears to be the most suitable swabbing material for detecting primer residues on hands (354). The determination of Mn, Ba, Sb, and P b in gunshot residue (GSR) on individual hands by flameless atomic absorption spectrometry has been described (355). Anodic stripping voltammetry has been used to determine the amount of antimony from hand swabs. The technique is useful for detecting 10-120 ng of antimony on the hands of an individual suspected of discharging or handling a firearm (356). Anodic stripping voltammetry has been used to demonstrate the presence of gunshot residues on hands (357). Absorption and exclusion characteristics of nitrocellulose, a major component of firearms propellants, were examined on a variety of chromatographic supports (358). A procedure for the detection of gunshot residue through the presence of diphenylamine has been proposed. The method incorporates HPLC with electrochemical detection (359). The distribution, shape, and composition of GSR around wounds allows for an estimation of the distance between the gun and the target within the range of several inches to several feet (360). HPLC with reductive-mode electrochemical detection a t a pendent mercury drop electrode is capable of detecting 1,3-glyceryl dinitrate and 1,pglyceryl dinitrate on samples collected from skin in contact with nitroglycerin (361). Dithiooxamide (rubeanic acid) has been used for the visual detection of copper and nickel deposited on a bullet hole periphery by the passage of a jacketed bullet through target material (362). Visual observations, chemical tests, and instrumental analysis were used to differentiate black and smokeless gunpowder (363). Fibers and Hairs. By use of a combination of analytical methods it should be possible to distinguish modacrylic from acrylic fibers without difficulty, and to distinguish many different varieties of modacrylics (364). The frequency of chance match occurrences among fibers was evaluated (365). Fabrics composed of mixtures of synthetic polymer fibers are likely to transfer fibers during contact in reasonably close approximation to their composition. The incorporation of wool, viscose, or cotton into the blend leads to marked deviations from the predicted fiber ratio (366). In an effort to assess the likelihood or frequency of transfer of automobile carpeting fibers, simulated transfers were carried out in vehicles with several fabric types. The types of clothing fabric and the age and type of automobile carpeting will together influence the transfer of fibers. The amount of time the garment has been worn will influence the number of fibers remaining (367). Fiber diameter may be a factor in the transfer of wool fibers, but other variables, including the persistence of transferred fibers on the recipient garment and the method of sampling must be considered (368). The incidence of occurrence on garment surfaces of fibers known to be very common was studied. Matching fibers were found on only 10 of 335 garments searched and a maximum of two fibers on any one item was found (481). The front seats of vehicles were examined for the presence of commonly occurring fibers. The results indicate that when significant numbers of more than one type or color of matching fibers are found, the evidence for contact appears to be highly significant. With a small number of fibers matching, the possibility of a spurious random or of a secondary transfer must be taken into account (482). Movement of fibers during routing laboratory examination of garments was investigated. No wool or cotton fibers were transferred from one room to another (330). In an attempt to remove incriminating evidence, a criminal may wash or dry-clean articles of clothing worn during the commission of a crime. The effect of garment cleaning on the recovery and redistribution of transferred fibers was evaluated (369). Use of complementary chromaticity coordinates for recording fiber colors by visible microspectrophotometry has been demonstrated (370). There is an apparent diversity of opinion with respect to the probative value of hair in the United Kingdom and in North America. The results of a questionnaire showed that U.K. scientists tend to want fewer categories for classification of hair’s microscopic features than the North Americans (371). Comments received in response to a questionnaire seeking opinion about hair examination were considered. A hair examination form was presented with recommendations for its use (372). Gaudette has examined factors that influence the 168R
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evidential value of hair comparisons (373). Sex determination from buccal mucosu and hair roots was successfully accomplished by chemical staining techniques for X and Y chromatins (374). An isoelectric focusing method followed by silver staining has been developed for the study of keratins in hair for species identification (375). A two-dimensional procedure which gives an electrophoretic protein pattern for hair has been developed. Although not yet fully tested, it appears to discriminate between different species, and in some cases, to discriminate between individuals (376). An isoelectric focusing method for typing EsD in bloodstains and hair roots has been described (377). Hair root sheaths have been accurately typed for EAP, AK, and ADA (378). The presence of sulfonic acid in human scalp hair has been monitored by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and found to provide a means of differentiating treated and untreated hairs (379). Human head hairs were compared by pyrolysis GC-mass spectroscopy. A few major components in the pyrograms was found to differ among the donors (380). Morphine was detected in the hair of heroin addicts by HPLC with fluorometric detection (381). Sulfur and copper distribution in human hair was studied. Sulfur content variation along a hair length apparently reflects variations in human metabolism (382). Glass and Paint. Stoney and Thornton advocate the necessity of determining both refractive index and density for the proper forensic interpretation of glass evidence data (383). A description is given of a commercial device that measures the refractive index of glass particles (384,385).A computer program has been proposed for assessing the evidential value of glass refractive index measurements (386). For the purpose of illustration how common or uncommon a particular glass sample is, a three-dimensional projection graph depicting refractive index, density, and number of glass specimens examined has been found to be useful (387). A 400-sample glass refractive index survey was reported. There is a high statistical difference between the refractive index distribution for sheet and patterned glasses (388). A survey of refractive index, color, and thickness of automobile window glass in New Zealand was reported (426). A collection of glasses were examined to establish whether or not discrimination between them was improved by measuring dispersion. It was shown that dispersion measurements are unlikely to enhance the evidential value of glass (479). The variation of structural stresses in very small glass fragments, measured by changes in refractive index, can be used for discrimination and classification (389). A Bayesian approach to interpreting the evidential value of glass has been presented (390). The probability of picking up a piece of glass in footwear has been examined (391). Coincidence probabilities were determined in cases involving multiple glass specimens (392). The refractive indexes of glass fragments recovered from clothing have been measured. The refractive index distribution was found to be dependent on the location of the glass on the clothing (393). It has been demonstrated that the number of glass particles transferred to fabric is dependent upon fabric type and particle size but that the loss of particles is primarily determined by particle size (394). Sheet and container glass have been successfully differentiated by trace elemental analysis. Magnesium levels and CajFe ratios were determined for this purpose (395). Lmproved discrimination of glass can be achieved by annealing (396, 397). When a glass is broken some of the resulting fragments will retain an original surface. Light microscopy can be used to identify these surfaces and to examine surface features characteristic of the type and origin of the glass (398). The number and size distribution of the fragments of broken milk bottles have been studied (399). Scratch marks on particles of glass originating from windshields can be detected by specular reflection of white light or by interference microscopy (400). Interferometry was used to study the topography of surface particles arising from the breaking of tempered windshield glass (401). Magnetic susceptibility measurements over the temperature range 4 to 300 K have been used to identify and distinguish various samples of headlight glass (402). The cratering of glass resulting from its impact with a projectile may be explained by the ability of mechanical waves to fracture glass. In the absence of knowledge as to the caliber and type of ammunition used, any attempt to estimate the caliber or velocity of a projectile from a n inspection of the form and dimensions of the crater would seem to be unwise (403). Experiments have confirmed that
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tempered glass automobile windows may severly influence the projedory of a projectile passing through such a window (404). Also, tests were performed to gain an understanding as to the relative ease with which spark plugs are capable of breaking tempered glass (405). A method to check the temperature calibration for the Mettler microscope hot stage was developed. A small thermometer device was found to be effective for this purpose (472). Infrared spectroscopy, pyrolysis mass spectrometry, and pyrolysis gas chromatography have been shown to be useful techniques for the characterization of paint resins (406). Likewise, pyrolysis capillary gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was used to analyze automotive paints. The mass spectra data from the entire chromatogram of a given paint was combined with the aid of a data system. The results suggest that a searchable data base may be established by utilizing composite mass spectra (407). Automobile paints have been discriminated by pyrolysis gas chromatography (408). Examination of paint chips by visible microspectrophotometry was found useful for matching paint chips found a t the scene of a hit-and-run accident to reference spectra stored in the microspectrophotometer’s computer memory (409). Spectra of colored compounds separated by TLC can be conveniently obtained from spots on the plate by visible microspectrophotometry. The method has been applied to extracted paint pigments (410). Analytical techniques applicable to the forensic analysis of paint have been reviewed (411). Fingerprints. The stability of bloodstains exposed to various fingerprint-developingagents has been examined. All materials except black powder destroyed or weakened enzymes of forensic interest (412). Argon-ion, copper vapor, and frequency-doubled neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet lasers were examined and all three lasers were found to be effective for visualizing latent prints (413). Fingerprint development techniques that use laser light present difficulties with some surfaces that are highly fluorescent under blue and green illumination. Chemical development with dansyl chloride and vapor staining with 9-methylanthracene were found to be useful when dealing with these situations (414). Several ninhydrin analogues were examined in conjunction with latent print development with a frequency-doubled neodymium: yttrium aluminum garnet laser (415). Latent fingerprints on various items were developed by exposing them to fumes obtained by heating polycyanoaorylate (416). Fingerprints developed with ninhydrin form stable, colored complexes when treated with various metal salts. Many of these colored complexes can be used to increase the sensitivity of detection of latent prints because of photoluminescence properties. Taking into account spectral characteristics, solubility, versatility, stability, and reproducibility, the use of cadmium nitrate tetrahydrate complex was advocated (417). Treatment of latent fingerprints, 2 weeks to 2 months old with trypsin, followed by development with ninhydrin enhances the detectability of the fingerprints. Zinc chloride treatment of latent prints previously exposed to ninhydrin enhanced their detectability upon laser examination under conditions of high humidity and elevated temperature. Cadmium nitrate was also found useful for enhancing ninhydrin-treated prints (418). The synthesis of ninhydrin analogues and their application to the development of latent fingerprints has been investigated. Substituted ninhydrins develop latent fingerprints with a sensitivity similar to ninhydrin (419). A descriptive method that allows documentation of minutia configurations in epidermal ridge patterns was presented. Such a method is needed to study systematically the variation of epidermal ridge minutiae and to test existing hypotheses regarding the frequencies of occurrence of specific minutia configurations (420). A review of a model previously proposed for the quantitative assessment of fingerprint individuality was undertaken. A set of features to be included in a more comprehensivemodel was offered (421). Perspiration residues were analyzed by TLC and HPLC for the purpose of conducting aging studies on fingerprint residues (422). A scanning electron microscope study was made on fingerprints taken with dental impression materials (480). Miscellaneous. A survey of crime laboratories in the United States indicates that the rapid expansion of crime laboratory facilities has subsided, but the number of scientific personnel employed by crime laboratories continues to rise.
Laboratories appear to be relatively successful in updating and acquiring new scientific instrumentation. Dru and alcohol cases constitute practically two-thirds of la%oratory caseloads (423). The occurrence of trace evidence in routine casework was evaluated. The data generated show that trace evidence could play a more vital role in criminal investigations (424). The importance of trace evidence in criminal caws was demonstrated in a discussion of three cases (425). Pereira has discussed quality assurance in forensic science as it is applied in the United Kingdom (426). The problems of conducting a proficiency testing program on a national/international scale for a large number of forensic laboratories were discussed (427). Thornton discussed instances in which a set of characteristics may be described that is intermediate between class and individual characteristics. Consideration of “ensembles” of these characteristics may contribute meaningfully toward individualization (428). A statistical method for discriminating physical evidence has been presented (429). Lenth discussed the ways in which probabilities can be used, both properly and improperly, in the identification of a victim, a criminal, or an object (430). Articles composed of various materials were sprayed with cell suspension of bacterium for tagging purposes (431). In criminal investigations where blood has been shed, bloodstain pattern interpretation on fabrics can be important. In some cases it may be possible to conclude if a bloodstain pattern is consistent with impact splatter or passively falling blood. It may also be possible to determine the orientation of the fabric or clothing when blood is deposited along with an indication of the dropping height (432). Results of experiments including blood droplet dynamics were carried out to aid in the interpretation of bloodstain patterns at crime scenes (433, 434). Paper matches were compared for luminescing inclusions and fibers with laser light (435). Submerging two adjacent matches in an ethanol water solution causes cellulose fibers along the cut edges to ecome transparent making inclusions more observable. This technique has been applied to the comparison of paper matches (436). Gel permeation chromatography was applied to the analysis of PVC wire insulation. The technique was found to be capable of discriminating between different commercially available brands of wire insulation (437). A valuable method for identifying hit-and-run vehicles is to study the marks they received during impact with other vehicles. Collision marks on plastic materials on motor vehicles have proven to be evidential (438). Fabric impressions in thermoplastic materials or hairs and fibers found embedded in upholstery or interior decorative components have been shown to play an important role in traffic accident reconstruction (439). The detection of iron traces on hands is often accomplished by spraying a ferrozine solution on the hands. When a reducing agent is used in conjunction with the ferrozine spray, the sensitivity of the detection is greatly enhanced (440). The advantages of diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) for forensic science applications have been discussed (441). The basic concepts of tree growth, tree-ring dating, wood anatomy, wood, and wood fiber species identification have been reviewed with emphasis as to their utility in analyzing wood as forensic evidence (442). Ricin, a toxic protein extracted from the seeds of castor oil plants, has been detected in animal tissues by using ELISA (443). The conditions under which compression and stretching of filament coils occur for quartz halogen headlamps were examined (444). Safe insulations were examined by infrared spectrometry. Most safe insulations when exposed to high humidity show large increases in calcium carbonate concentrations within 2 h (445). A nebulization technique was reported for multielemental analysis by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (446). Inductivelycoupled plasma optical emission spectrometry has been utilized for obtaining multielemental data from forensic evidence (447). Automobile bodyfillers from New Zealand were examined by a variety of analytical techniques. Nearly all samples could be discriminated (478). A brief overview of government forensic laboratories in the USSR is offered (448). The application of pyrolytic methods to forensic problems has been reviewed (449,450). The nature of the sample being pyrolyzed appears to be the major factor affecting the reproducibility of pyrolysis-mass spectrometry (451). Energy dispersive X-ray analysis has been carried out on flare residues to characterize their elemental composition
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(452). A procedure for the investigation of chemical selfheating processes as a possible f i e cause was developed (453). Gases produced during structural fires were studied as to their potential toxicities. Carbon monoxide was the only gas measured in concentration considered to be lethal. In all the fires studied the concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, and organic compounds varied relative to the physical aspects of the fire (454). Free radicals, measured by electron spin resonance spectroscopy, were trapped in concentrations considered to be incapacitating. This may explain incapacitaties or death occurring during the initial low-energy phase of a fire where smoke is being produced (455). Samples from volcanic ash soils where classified into four groups on the basis of IR spectra. A combination of petrological examination and instrumental techniques were useful for discriminating volcanic ash and forest soils (456). The soil variables, median particle size, modal class interval of particle size, and percentage of organic matter, have been examined as a means of discriminating soil samples (457). HPLC was investigated for the forensic analysis of soils. The results showed that the chromatograms of all soil samples studied differ from each other quantitatively but not all can be differentiated quantitatively (458). A preliminary study indicates that the amount of time ink has been on a document may be determined by comparison of the relative concentrations of the volatile components of the questioned ink with those of known inks of the same formulation (459). Better discrimination between ink lines was accomplished by TLC over visible microspectrophotometry (460). The combination of laser excitation with luminescence spectroscopic measurements can at times discriminate between similar inks when conventional methods are unsuccessful (461). Visible microspectrophotometry has been applied to differentiate inks and fibers found on travel and identity documents (462). Laser light has proved a valuable tool in the examination of altered documents. Laser light has been useful for detecting the transfer of ink, the comparison of inks, and the examination of typing inks (463). Examination of ink on paper by IR and visible luminescence utilizing laser light shows the two techniques to be complementary in their ability to differentiate inks (464). The chronological order in which two intersecting writing or typed lines were made can be determined by examination by SEM and/or a lifting and transfer technique using kromekote paper (465). It is possible to differentiate between an erasable and nonerasable pen ink with lyrode powder (466). A method was presented for transferring ink directly from samples of written lines to a thin-layer chromatographic sheet (467). An instrument for the detection of magnetic material on documents was described (468). A thin-layer of tritiated titanium has proven to be a good radiographic source for examining documents (469). Infrared spectrophotometry and pyrolysis gas chromatography were applied for discriminating photocopy toners and for matching toner powders with the toner extraded from a questioned document (470). Pyrolysis GC and pyrolysis GC/MS were utilized to differentiate photocopies produced by different manufacturers of copying instruments. Specific differences were noted to be dependent on the type of toner material used (471).
BOOKS There have been some noteworthy books published on forensic science topics since 1984. “Proceedingsof a Forensic Science Symposium on the analysis of Sexual Assault Evidence” (483),“Proceedingof the International Symposium on the Forensic Applications of Electrophoresis” (484),and “Proceedingsin the International Symposium of the Analysis and Identification of Polymers” (485)contain relevent review and research articles on topics of forensic interest. The study of gunshot related examinations is presented in Gunshot Wounds, Practical Aspects of Firearms, Ballistics, and Forensic Techniques (486). A revised edition of Techniques of Crime Scene Investigations (487) has been published as has Forensic Science (488). In the fields of drug analysis and forensic toxicology there have been some relevent publications. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Psychoactive Drugs (489) contains information on drug concentration interpretation. The highly informative Clarke’s Isolation and Identification of Drugs (490) has been updated. Current topics of interest are discussed within Analytical Methods 170R
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Human Toxicology (491) and Methodology of Analytical Toxicology (492). Two recent books containin review and research articles on marijuana-relatedtopics are 8annaninids: Chemical, Pharmacodynamics, and Theraputic Aspects (493), and Marihuana-84 (494). Recent books devoted to the subject of forensic serology are Advances in Forensic Haemogenetics (495) and Advances in Forensic Science, Volume I (496). of
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(487) Fieher, 8. A. J.; Svensm, A.; Wendell, 0. Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation; 4th ed.; Eisevier Science: New York, 1986. (488) Davies, G.: Ed. Forensic Scisnce, 2nd ed : American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986. (489) Barnett, G., Chiang, C. W., Eds. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of psvchoactive Owgs; Biomedlcal Pub.: Foster City, CA, 1985. (490) Moffat, A. C., Jackson, J. V., Moss, M. S., w i m p , B., Eds. “Clarke’s Isolation and Identflicatbn Drugs, 2nd ed.; Pharmaceutical Press: London, 1986. (491) Curry, A. S., Ed. Analytical Methods of Human Toxicology, Vertag Chemie: Weinhelm, Fed. Rep. Ger., 1985. Ed. Methodology of Analyticai Toxicology: CRC Press: (492) Sunshine, I., Boca Raton, FL, 1985. (493) Agureil, S., Dewey, W. L., Eds. CannabinoMs: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Thereupefic Aspects; Academic: Orlando. FL, 1984. (494) Harvey, D. J., Ed. Marihuana; 84 (Eighty-four). Procedures Oxford Symposum on Cannabis, 7985: IRL: Oxford, U. K., 1985. (495) Munster, B. E.,Henningsen, K., E&. Advances in Forensic Haemogenetics, 7 ; Springer-Verlag: berlin, 1986. (496) Lee, H. C., Gaensslen, R. E., Eds.; Advances in Forensic Science, Volume One-Forensic Seroiogy ; PSG Publishing Co.; Littleton, MA, 1986
Pharmaceuticals and Related Drugs R. K. Gilpin* Department of Chemistry, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio 44242
L. A. Pachla
Warner-LambertlParke-Davis, Pharmaceutical Research, PharmacokineticslDrug Metabolism, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
The current review is a survey of pharmaceutical analysis and related methodolo y appearing in Analytical Abstracts or Chemical Abstractsktween July 1984 and October 1986. The article deals exclusively with compounds in unformulated and dosage form and does not cover biochemical and clinical aspects of the subject. Since it is only possible to cite a representative sampling of the total work published, emphasis is placed on references that appear to be significant and are more easily accessible. In an attempt to make the review more inclusive, we have included additional citations in the Nitrogen- and Oxygen-ContainingCompounds section. However, not all of these a p ear in the text. Those not specifically discussed are listelin Table I. The review is divided into 10 major sections: General, Alkaloids, Antibiotics, Inorganics, Nitrogen- and OxygenContaining Compounds, Steroids, Sulfur-Containing Compounds, Vitamins, Techniques, and Miscellaneous. Most of the major sections are divided into subsections. As in the past, because of space limitations and the desire to list as many citations as possible, a reference generally appears only in a single section. GENERAL Books and reviews of a comprehensive nature published were: “EnantioeelectiveDrug Analysis” (9),“Pharmaceuticals and Related Drugs” (22), “Methods for Analysis of Drugs” (38), “Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol 11: Pharmaceutical Analysis: Modern Methods, Pt. B” (411, and “Analysis and Control of Protein and Polypeptide Drugs” (55). The book “Drug Analysis by Gas Chromatogra hy” (31) and a review of various chromatogra hic proce&res applied to pharmaceutical formulations ago appeared (14). Specific aspects of performance characteristics related to gas chromatographic methods (26),capillary GC column selection (5), and pharmaceutical application of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (8) were discussed. Additionally, the use of combined HPLC-MS to determine drugs and hormones was reviewed (56). 174 R
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As in the past, the most widely employed technique in pharmaceutical analysis was liquid chromatography. A major review with over 850 references considered the separation of various pharmacologically active materials (18). General advances in HPLC technology (4,13)as well as specific aspects of high-speed analysis (21) and the precision of various HPLC methods (28) were discussed. The utilization of chiral stationary phases (58) and correlations between reversed-phase retention data and solute hydrophobicity (23) and compound activity (33) also were considered by several investigators. The use of secondary mobile phase modifiers continues to be an important topic. A book (24) and an extensive review (1) devoted to the theory and applications of ion-pair methodology were published. Similarly, ion-pairing techniques were used to enhance detection (11). A more or less generalized scheme for determining 49 drugs from several different therapeutic classes was developed (60). Several halogen-free reversed-phase TLC systems were compared with equivalent liquid chromatographic systems (17). Based on the identity and purity testing of 28 drugs, TLC was reported to have higher separating power. A book on “Plant Drug Analysis: A Thin Layer Chromatography Atlas” was published (57) within the current period. Likewise, a review of the application of thin-layer chromatography for drug identification, stability and purity testing, and the determination of drugs in formulations was written (19). A variety of techniques used to obtain quantitative information from TLC were evaluated (39). Coated glass tubes were used in place of conventional plates to identify vitamins, alkaloids, and other types of compounds (34). Principal component analysis was applied to RF values of nearly 600 basic and neutral pharmaceutically active compounds as an aid in their identification (42, 43). A number of other pharmaceutical ap lications of TLC methods were discussed (44,53). geveral papers dealing with electrochemicaltechniques in pharmaceuticalanalysis were published (3, 7,12,25,32). Both theoretical and applied aspects of amperometry, conductometry, ion-selective electrodes, potentiometry, voltammetry, 0 1987 American Chemical Society
