1 Forensic Science Education—A Perspective RALPH F. TURNER
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School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich. 48823
In attempting to p l a c e f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e education in some k i n d of p e r s p e c t i v e , it has been my good fortune to put the f i n i s h i n g touches on t h i s paper while conducting my bi-annual course in Comparative C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e in London, England, t h i s summer of 1974. At l e a s t I have had the advantage of being s e v e r a l thousand m i l e s from my o f f i c e and I hope that some mea-sure of intellectual p e r s p e c t i v e has accompanied t h i s matter of p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n . Dealing with "a p e r s p e c t i v e " of whatever the t o p i c may be suggests 1) an enormous v a n i t y , presumably supported by c o n s i d e r a b l e experience and 2) a demand that the author be completely open and fair with h i s readers by r e v e a l i n g h i s b i a s e s and p r e j u d i c e s . With the latter p o i n t I am q u i t e comfortable, having done t h i s before s e v e r a l thousand students f o r 27 years. My t r a i n i n g as a chemist suggests some adherence to o b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of events. Modest personal experience in psychology and psychotherapy has given me some i n s i g h t i n t o human nature, my own i n c l u d e d . Testimony in court as an expert witness, beginning in 1938 and c a r r y i n g through the s p r i n g of 1974 (with s e v e r a l subpoenas awaiting me when I r e t u r n to East Lansing) has given me a c e r t a i n f e e l i n g and respect f o r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e , d e s p i t e its numerous s h o r t -comings,with which we are all f a m i l i a r . With regard t o p e r s o n a l v a n i t y or ego s a t i s f a c t i o n in attempting to b r i n g an i s s u e i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e , I view t h i s paper as j u s t another small e f f o r t to r e f i n e our t h i n k i n g and a t t i t u d e s about f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e education. T h i s is probably the t h i r d or f o u r t h paper I have prepared on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t o p i c , and I hope I will have the opportunity to w r i t e s e v e r a l more in f u t u r e y e a r s . So much by way of i n t r o d u c t i o n . L e t us begin by posing the question "What seems to be, i n my humble view, the c u r r e n t necessary i n g r e d i e n t s of American f o r e n s i c science education?" I say American, f o r t h i s i s presumably the p r i n c i p a l area of i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s symposium; but in so doing one cannot ignore the enormous c o n t r i b u t i o n s of our predecessors in Europe and, t o some extent, the Far E a s t . Looking
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Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
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toward Europe a l s o helps us with a d e f i n i t i o n , or more p r e c i s e l y , a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of terms. Important h i s t o r i c a l references i l l u s t r a t e the f a c t that f o r e n s i c science had i t s o r i g i n s i n problems of f o r e n s i c medicine. One must note, however, that Europeans tend to hold a broader and more i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d concept of f o r e n s i c science than i s c u r r e n t l y evident i n America. Thus we see the names of Lombroso, B e r t i l l o n , Locard, Freud, Gross, Landsteiner, J e l l i n e k and others f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d to i n h i s t o r i c a l accounts of the development of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . I t i s not my aim to present a d e t a i l e d account of the h i s t o r i c a l development of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e , but I must b r i n g to your a t t e n t i o n an important recent paper by F r e d e r i c k Thomas, e n t i t l e d "Milestones i n F o r e n s i c Science" (X). . Paraphrasing t h i s e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e , we l e a r n about medical examination and the d e s c r i p t i o n of f i r e a r m wounds i n the 16th century, s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t i n the problem of sudden death i n the 17th century, d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between l i v e and s t i l l b o r n i n f a n t s i n 1681, the d e t e c t i o n of a r s e n i c i n human organs i n 1811, the Law of Quatelet (1869) which was the foundation f o r B e r t i l l o n ' s l a t e r work i n personal i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , the development of schools of f o r e n s i c science i n P a r i s (1795), Vienna (1804) and B e r l i n (1850), Lombroso s work (1826-1909), the use of mathematical p r o b a b i l i t i e s i n a B e l g i a n case i n 1929, and the more recent B r i t i s h c o n t r i b u t i o n s of Smith, G l a i s t e r , S p i l s b u r y and N i c h o l l s . To these milestones set f o r t h by Thomas, we can add the American achievements which are h i g h l i g h t e d i n part by the Stielow f i r e arms case i n New York s t a t e , the r e c o g n i t i o n of personal i d e n t i f i c a t i o n through f i n g e r p r i n t s at the St. L o u i s , M i s s o u r i World F a i r i n 1904, Weiner s discovery of the " r h " blood f a c t o r , the establishment of the S c i e n t i f i c Crime Detection Laboratory at Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Law School i n Chicago around 1929, the opening of the FBI l a b o r a t o r y i n 1932, the development of the polygraph during the same p e r i o d , the long and eminent h i s t o r y of the O f f i c e of the C h i e f Medical Examiner i n New York C i t y , the c r e a t i o n of the Department of Legal Medicine at Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , the i n f o r m a l , and l a t e r formal, teaching of c r i m i n a l i s t i c s at the u n i v e r s i t i e s of Wisconsin, C a l i f o r n i a and Michigan State, the f i r s t meeting of the American Academy of F o r e n s i c Sciences i n St. L o u i s , M i s s o u r i i n 1948 and the emergence of the N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Law Enforcement and C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e , the research branch of the Law Enforcement A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , created by the Congress a f t e r adoption of the Safe S t r e e t s Act i n 1966. 1
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Having b r i e f l y touched upon some h i s t o r i c a l f a c e t s of f o r e n s i c science, I think i t i s c l e a r that the f i r s t necessary i n g r e d i e n t of our e d u c a t i o n a l program i s one which w i l l make students aware of the past. Undergraduate and graduate c r i m i n a l i s t i c s programs have mushroomed from four i n the 1940's to s e v e r a l dozen at the present time. As I understand the philosophy
Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
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of these programs, they seem to be geared to producing t e c h n i c i a n s f o r a job market that i s s t i l l very a t t r a c t i v e . Some students appear to be f a s c i n a t e d by the p o t e n t i a l glamour or mystery of the work, and some i n s t r u c t o r s detect a source of funds to enhance grantsmanship or i r r e l e v a n t research. So f a r , I see l i t t l e evidence of courses that introduce the student to the broad spectrum of f o r e n s i c science; courses that t r a c e the development of t h i s s c i e n t i f i c s u b - s p e c i a l i t y from i t s European and B r i t i s h o r i g i n s , and courses that i l l u s t r a t e how s c i e n t i f i c observation and c o n c l u s i o n have been incorporated i n the Anglo-Saxon s t y l e of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e are h a r d l y to be found. A f t e r a l l , t h i s i s our American h e r i t a g e , and i t behooves the student to understand t h i s as w e l l as he can and to understand a l s o that there are other systems of j u s t i c e u t i l i z e d i n many p a r t s of the world, f o r example, i n Napoleonic Code c o u n t r i e s . Thus, I have t r i e d to present a case f o r the student being made aware of the o r i g i n s of f o r e n s i c science, understanding that t h i s d i s c i p l i n e i s not an American i n v e n t i o n of the l a t t e r 20th century, a p p r e c i a t i n g the f a c t that there has been a steady evol u t i o n and accumulation of knowledge of an understanding of how science i s u l t i m a t e l y only one of the t o o l s used i n the administ r a t i o n of j u s t i c e . Moving to a second p e r s p e c t i v e of f o r e n s i c scienceeducation, one n a t u r a l l y considers t e c h n i c a l content. Given my p r a c t i c a l experience and teaching career i n c r i m i n a l i s t i c s , I w i l l have nothing to say about f o r e n s i c pathology, t o x i c o l o g y , p s y c h i a t r y or other s p e c i a l i t i e s e s s e n t i a l l y r e l a t e d to medical t r a i n i n g . Formal t r a i n i n g i n American f o r e n s i c science ( c r i m i n a l i s t i c s i n i t s broadest sense) d i d not come i n t o being much before the advent of World War I I . Paul K i r k at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a and J.H. Mathews at the U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin were probably the two important educators who f i r s t took an i n t e r e s t i n moving beyond the a p p r e n t i c e - t u t o r i a l type of t r a i n i n g which e x i s t e d i n a number of medical schools that were producing f o r e n s i c s p e c i a l i s t s at that time. In h i s p r i v a t e l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i c i a n school, R.B.H. Gradwohl, of St. L o u i s , M i s s o u r i , was a l s o t r a i n i n g students who acquired e x p e r t i s e i n f o r e n s i c immunology. One must a l s o acknowledge the important c o n t r i b u t i o n s of Colonel C a l v i n Goddard and h i s colleagues Keeler, Muehlberger, Wilson, and Inbau at the Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y Crime Detection Laboratory i n Chicago. T h i s was e s s e n t i a l l y a working l a b o r a t o r y , independent of any government agencies, yet f o r the most part s e r v i n g prosecut o r i a l o f f i c e s . The group d i d conduct short courses f o r prosecut o r s , and, l a t e r , under the auspices of the law school, a l s o f o r defense counsels. T r a i n i n g i n the l a b o r a t o r y , however, was of the apprentice type, assuming that the student had s u i t a b l e academic preparation.
Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
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Returning to K i r k and Mathews, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that both of these gentlemen were chemists who had d i s t i n g u i s h e d themselves i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s of biochemistry and p h y s i c a l chemistry. Considering the f a c t that proteges of these mentors have had considerable i n f l u e n c e i n shaping educational p r a c t i c e s r e g a r d i n g f o r e n s i c science t r a i n i n g , i t i s no small wonder to me that we s t i l l see the b a s i c curriculum f o r f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s p a r a l l e l i n g that of chemistry, physics or b i o l o g y majors. I do, however, see some new i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y programs e v o l v i n g which are most encouraging, as long as they i n c l u d e elements which I s h a l l r e f e r to l a t e r . Probably one u s e f u l end-product of t h i s symposium w i l l be a stimulus to rework the e x i s t i n g patterns of f o r e n s i c science t r a i n i n g i n t o new and d i f f e r e n t formats geared toward producing the more complete f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t . In a recent a r t i c l e A.C. Maehly (2), D i r e c t o r of the N a t i o n a l Laboratory of F o r e n s i c Science i n Solna, Sweden, r e f l e c t s on the current s t a t e of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . With regard to education he s t a t e s , "The trend i n education has i n some ways been l e s s f a v o r able to us. Q u a l i t y i s s a c r i f i c e d to q u a n t i t y , and a s o l i d general background to increased s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . S p e c i a l i s t s are needed, of course; otherwise tasks such as document examination, drug a n a l y s i s , serology and so on could not be c a r r i e d out satisfactorily. But i n our broad f i e l d of endeavor, a s o l i d education i s of great importance, e s p e c i a l l y f o r coordinators and leaders of working groups and i n s t i t u t e s . " Further on he observes, "A small number of u n i v e r s i t i e s should run h i g h - q u a l i t y schools of f o r e n s i c science For a s s i s t a n t s , a s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g i n e i t h e r p h y s i c s , chemistry or b i o l o g y i s needed.....University graduates should have the opportunity of working on t h e i r t h e s i s at a l a b o r a t o r y of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . " Maehly, from h i s European viewpoint, has pointed up a p o t e n t i a l l y s e r i o u s problem which I see a l s o emerging i n America; namely the s a c r i f i c e of q u a l i t y f o r q u a n t i t y . I need only to r e f e r to the r a p i d p r o l i f e r a t i o n of f o r e n s i c science programs i n t h i s country and suggest t h a t we c a r e f u l l y review the q u a l i t y of these programs. Specifically, q u a l i t y has been s a c r i f i c e d when we consider how q u i c k l y some of these programs have been organized, how minimal the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of i n s t r u c t o r s are i n some i n s t a n c e s , and how seemingly obsessed some programs are with the a c q u i s i t i o n of c o s t l y and elaborate instrumentation with very l i t t l e f o r e n s i c science e x p e r t i s e to b u i l d upon. Returning to the matter of curriculum, t h i s obviously i s not the time nor the place to dwell upon s p e c i f i c courses or t h e i r d e t a i l e d content. Other speakers w i l l d e a l more completely with that t o p i c . Rather, l e t us consider the u l t i m a t e goal of a f o r e n s i c science t r a i n i n g and education program. Simply s t a t e d , the g o a l , as I see i t , i s to educate and t r a i n students to i n t e r p r e t evidence and events c o r r e c t l y , so that such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w i l l prove or disprove the t r u t h or v a l i d i t y of the s t a t e -
Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
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merit under l i t i g a t i o n . T h i s i m p l i e s the need f o r both broad and s o l i d general education c a l l e d f o r by Maehly, along with h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s i n s e l e c t e d areas. A l s o i m p l i c i t i n t h i s statement i s the need f o r the student t o comprehend that there i s a b s o l u t e l y no l i m i t t o the k i n d or nature of evidence that he may be c a l l e d upon to examine and i n t e r p r e t . The student must a l s o be w e l l aware of the h i s t o r i c a l nature of t e c h n o l o g i c a l progress so that h i s imagination and i n g e n u i t y w i l l not be d i s suaded by some seemingly d i f f i c u l t problem. Consider the f a c t that Hans Gross, a t the time he wrote " C r i m i n a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n , " could not r e p o r t on l a t e n t f i n g e r p r i n t s , yet he probably viewed hundreds of them during the course of h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Yet, a few years l a t e r , Henry and h i s f o l l o w e r s paved the way f o r u t i l i z a t i o n of t h i s now commonplace technique. Two decades ago c r i m i n a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s could do l i t t l e with the c l u e of an odor. Today the s c i e n c e of o l f a c t r o n i c s i s immensely u s e f u l i n c r i m i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The purpose of these examples i s t o emphasize the p o i n t that evidence i s always present. I t remains f o r the imaginative, the c u r i o u s and the w e l l - t r a i n e d f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t to i n t e r p r e t the evidence. I can best summarize t h i s p o i n t by s t a t i n g two hypotheses which I have presented t o my students f o r years: 1) I t i s impossible t o commit a crime without l e a v i n g a c l u e and, 2) I f a l l evidence i s c o l l e c t e d and i n t e r preted c o r r e c t l y i t w i l l prove or disprove the t r u t h of the allegation. Thus, i t becomes apparent that the student must f i r s t be w e l l grounded a t the undergraduate and graduate l e v e l i n an appropriate p h y s i c a l or n a t u r a l s c i e n c e . T h i s must i n c l u d e both the theory and p r a c t i c e of any s c i e n t i f i c technique. Given the i n c r e a s i n g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of cross-examination, (and we should a l l welcome t h i s ) , i t i s important that the expert witness be a c u t e l y aware of the l i m i t a t i o n s of any technique a t a p a r t i c u l a r phase of i t s development and use. Here again we have lessons t o l e a r n from the past. F o r e n s i c s c i e n c e educators must be f a m i l i a r with past e r r o r s and m i s c a r r i a g e s of j u s t i c e which occured when we pushed too f a r too f a s t i n such areas as chemical t e s t s f o r i n t o x i c a t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of polygraph t e s t s , powder r e s i d u e analyses, i n d i s c r i m i n a t e use of neutron a c t i v a t i o n a n a l y s i s and v o i c e p r i n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t o c i t e j u s t a few examples. I a l s o c a l l your a t t e n t i o n t o a small emerging group of t r i a l lawyers who a r e becoming expert a t c r o s s examining computer-based technology. Consider these i m p l i c a t i o n s when we view the widespread use of automated analyses employing complicated computerized searches of masses of data. Consider the p l i g h t o f the t e c h n i c i a n who, on r i g o r o u s cross-examination, cannot give c o n v i n c i n g and accurate answers t o searching quest i o n s . Here agian we a r e reminded of the dangers of s a c r i f i c i n g quality f o r quantity.
Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
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Now, assuming that we have developed a course of study that deals with the problems which I have a l l u d e d to i n general terms, what other t o p i c s must be considered? One of the most important i s the problem of proof. Proof may be a r e l a t i v e l y simple matter i n each of your v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s . However, i n the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e arena, I f e a r that i t i s more complicated. Without pretending to give answers, I suggest that the student must be confronted with the f o l l o w i n g questions: What c o n s t i t u t e s proof i n the eyes of the philosopher, the l o g i c i a n , the attorney, the judge, the s c i e n t i s t and, f i n a l l y , the j u r y ? How does one d e f i n e proof? How does one a r t i c u l a t e h i s f i n d i n g s or "proof"? How does one t r a n s l a t e and transmit these f i n d i n g s and conclusions to i n v e s t i g a t o r s , attorneys and jurymen? Answers to some of these questions can be found i n a p p r o p r i a t e courses on almost any decent l i b e r a l a r t s and science campus. Turning to another subject matter area, my experience with f o r e n s i c science students graduated over a p e r i o d of 25 years i n d i c a t e s that many move forward i n t o r e s p o n s i b l e management p o s i t i o n s . The usual s c i e n t i f i c c u r r i c u l u m does not prepare students f o r such d u t i e s . Probably such t r a i n i n g should be c a r r i e d over to postgraduate years, but i t should not be neglected. Obviously i t must d e a l with such matters as personnel s e l e c t i o n , finance and budgeting, s u p e r v i s i o n and management, manpower development, research and development, and p o l i c y and d e c i s i o n making. So much f o r general comments on curriculum. F i n a l l y , what i s a t h i r d important i n g r e d i e n t i n the f o r e n s i c science t r a i n i n g format? I see i t as a need to guide the student i n understanding the r o l e of science i n the t o t a l scheme of the adminis t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e . For years we have heard many eminent f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s make strong appeals f o r the s c i e n t i s t to remain a l o o f from the crime scene, from the i n v e s t i g a t o r , from the l e g a l counsel, from the accused, and from the philosophy of the law i t s e l f . The s c i e n t i s t i s t o l d that h i s o b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the evidence w i l l be a s u f f i c i e n t end i n i t s e l f . While there can be no q u a r r e l with s c i e n t i f i c accuracy and object i v i t y , the p r a c t i t i o n e r who f o l l o w s t h i s philosophy w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be heading toward d i f f i c u l t i e s and the p o s s i b i l i t y of thwarting j u s t i c e . Here again, the f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t should be conversant with h i s t o r i c m i s c a r r i a g e s of j u s t i c e . Examples are the t r i a l s of Socrates and G a l i l e o , the Dreyfus A f f a i r e i n v o l v i n g B e r t i l l o n , the disputed p a t e r n i t y t r i a l of Charles C h a p l i n and the problems surrounding the two Coppolino t r i a l s . I f you thought my e a r l i e r r e f e r e n c e to the importance of a p s y c h o l o g i c a l understanding of human behavior and one's own motivations strange, l e t me e x p l a i n b r i e f l y . Even though the f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t f a n c i e s h i m s e l f an o b j e c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y , he, too, i s subj ect to the same emotional pressures which b u f f e t i n v e s t i g a t o r s and members of a cummunity when they are d e a l i n g with p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t or emotionally-laden o f f e n s e s . Consciously or subconsciously,
Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
Downloaded by 80.82.77.83 on April 11, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1975 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1975-0013.ch001
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he may be i n f l u e n c e d by these pressures and adopt u n s c i e n t i f i c behavior. The b e t t e r equipped he i s to understand h i s own b i a s e s and p r e j u d i c e s , the b e t t e r f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t he w i l l be. I need only to r e f e r to two examples to i l l u s t r a t e my p o i n t , namely the i n c r e d i b l e f o r e n s i c h a n d l i n g of the a s s a s s i n a t i o n of P r e s i dent John F. Kennedy and the widely divergent s c i e n t i f i c opinions thrust upon us today by f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s speaking out on the current drug abuse problem. On t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t , we do not seem to be any more s o p h i s t i c a t e d than we were a t the time of the enactment of the 18th amendment. Stated d i f f e r e n t l y , the t h i r d i n g r e d i e n t c a l l s f o r an understanding of the e v o l u t i o n of Anglo-Saxon law and i t s subsequent adaptation and m o d i f i c a t i o n i n America. Throughout t h i s e v o l u t i o n runs a continuous thread of concern f o r j u s t , f a i r and humane treatment of those f e l l o w men who become subjects of l i t i g a t i o n . To be sure, h i s t o r y t e l l s us that we have departed from t h i s admirable course on many o c c a s i o n s . T h i s then, i s a l l the more p r e s s i n g reason f o r i n c l u d i n g seminars d e a l i n g with the more a b s t r a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between law and s c i e n c e . In summary, I have attempted to put f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e educat i o n i n t o a p e r s p e c t i v e as I see i t a t the moment. I have not d e a l t with the minutae of c u r r i c u l u m , but rather have t r i e d to present a few broad s t r o k e s . I r e a l i z e that a l l educators must d e a l e v e n t u a l l y with the small d e t a i l s of course content, sequence, and so on, but I f e e l i t i s e q u a l l y important to keep long range and general goals i n mind. Thus I would hope that some of you w i l l be encouraged to study c a r e f u l l y the not-sorecent h i s t o r y of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e , s e l e c t milestones which you f e e l have been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r important forward steps, and then devise programs of your own t h a t w i l l prepare students to meet the challenge and r i g o r o u s demands of f a i r , j u s t and humane a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e . Having s a i d a l l of t h i s , w i l l you bear with me while I give you (with tongue s l i g h t l y i n cheek) my p r o f i l e of the i d e a l f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t which I know a l l of you hope and expect to produce. He must have, i n s u p e r i o r measure, the separate and c o l l e c t i v e e x p e r t i s e which a l l of you possess, knowledge of c r i m i n a l law and procedure commensurate with that of M e l v i n B e l l i and F. Lee B a i l e y , the thoroughness and i n t e g r i t y of Hans Gross, the c l e v e r n e s s of Vidoq, the audacity of S i r Bernard S p i l l s b u r y , the experience of M i l t o n Helpern and the consummate i n t u i t i v e s k i l l of Sherlock Holmes. Literature Cited 1. 2.
Thomas, F r e d e r i c k , JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES, 19, (2), 241(1974). Maehly, A.C., JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES, 19, (2), 255 (1974).
Davies; Forensic Science ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.
