Forensic Science

5 Graduate Education and Research in Forensic

Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO on August 24, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1975 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1975-0013.ch005

Chemistry at Northeastern University BARRY L. KARGER, GEOFFREY DAVIES

JAMES

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PARKER,

BILL

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GIESSEN,

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Institute of C h e m i c a l A n a l y s i s , A p p l i c a t i o n s , a n d Forensic Science, Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y , Boston, M a s s . 02115

The c o n t i n u i n g r i s e i n crime has enlarged the r o l e of law enforcement i n American s o c i e t y . Along with t h i s o v e r a l l growth in the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system, the field of f o r e n s i c science has expanded as law enforcement agencies have become more r e l i a n t on the c o l l e c t i o n , examination and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p h y s i c a l evidence. T h i s increased r e l i a n c e r e s u l t s from at l e a s t two f a c t o r s . F i r s t , c e r t a i n types of crime r e q u i r e p h y s i c a l evidence a n a l y s i s f o r t h e i r s o l u t i o n . For example, proof of drug possess i o n can only be obtained by a chemical i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of samples found on a suspect. Second, new and s o p h i s t i c a t e d instrumentat i o n is becoming a v a i l a b l e i n science and technology. These instruments will continue i n the f u t u r e to have a major impact on the types of samples which can be examined and the number of analyses that can be run during any given time p e r i o d . For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry allows the r a p i d identification of complex organic mixtures i n b i o l o g i c a l samples. As a r e s u l t of these developments the f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t c u r r e n t l y has a formidable work l o a d , with increased numbers of c r i m i n a l cases as w e l l as increased numbers of a n a l y t i c a l t e s t s per case. A f o r e n s i c science l a b o r a t o r y is f r e q u e n t l y requested to a s s i s t i n a broad range of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s such as: 1) death - establishment of homicide, s u i c i d e , a c c i d e n t a l or n a t u r a l death 2) auto c o l l i s i o n s - fatal and n o n f a t a l hit-and-run cases 3) a s s a u l t s - aggravated, i n t e n t to kill or maim, sexual 4) arson and e x p l o s i o n 5) fraud and d e c e i t 6) b u r g l a r y 7) firearms v i o l a t i o n s 8) drug abuse cases 9) poisoning and other toxicology. A d d i t i o n a l l y , the l a b o r a t o r y may be r e q u i r e d to maintain a c a p a b i l i t y of p r o v i d i n g crime scene examinations. The f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t must a l s o be prepared to present expert witness testimony in court, and indeed a s i z e a b l e p o r t i o n of time may be taken

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In Forensic Science; Davies, G.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975.


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up i n court appearances. In order to provide s e r v i c e f o r t h i s broad range of i n v e s t i gations and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , the c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r i e s have had to i n t e n s i f y t h e i r e f f o r t s at expansion, departmentalizat i o n and manpower s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . Moreover, as i n other t e c h nological disciplines, the f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t has had to maint a i n a strong s c i e n t i f i c background, as w e l l as remain abreast with the most recent instrumental and method developments. Many of the current t e c h n i c a l advances i n f o r e n s i c a n a l y s i s have been discussed by Williams (1) and Curry (2). F o r e n s i c science i s now at the stage where such methods as radioimmunoassay, scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry are used i n c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r i e s along with more f a m i l i a r methods of a n a l y s i s such as wet chemical techniques, i n f r a r e d and u l t r a v i o l e t spectrometry and microscopy. Given the breadth of f o r e n s i c science and the v a r y i n g demands on the c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r y , i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that there i s a wide v a r i a t i o n i n the q u a l i t y and c a p a b i l i t y of d i f f e r e n t l a b o r a t o r i e s . L i m i t e d analyses may be p o s s i b l e at the l o c a l l e v e l , whereas at r e g i o n a l (e.g., county, s t a t e ) and f e d e r a l l a b o r a t o r i e s s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y t i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s may e x i s t . T h i s b r i e f view of present day f o r e n s i c science s t r e s s e s the breadth and r a p i d changing character of the f i e l d . Traditionally, personnel have not entered the c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r y with c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g i n f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e , r a t h e r they have possessed c o l l e g e education i n the more standard d i s c i p l i n e s (e.g. chemistry, biology, etc.). E x p e r t i s e has been obtained by on-the-job t r a i n i n g . Up to the present, there have been few programs of f o r e n s i c science at American u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h i s i s now slowly changing as a r e s u l t of the i n c r e a s e d importance of f o r e n s i c science and the demands of students f o r a more p r o f e s s i o n a l educ a t i o n at the undergraduate l e v e l . T h i s volume has s e v e r a l papers d e a l i n g with recent f o r e n s i c science programs at the undergraduate (3) and 2-year degree l e v e l (4). At Northeastern we have concentrated on graduate l e v e l programs and research i n criminalistics. The purpose of t h i s paper i s to d e s c r i b e these e f f o r t s i n the hope that our experiences w i l l a s s i s t others c o n s i d e r i n g i n t r o d u c t i o n of s i m i l a r programs. N a t i o n a l C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e Education

Consortium

In J u l y 1973, the f o l l o w i n g seven u n i v e r s i t i e s were awarded grants by the Law Enforcement A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (LEAA) of the Department of J u s t i c e to develop and strengthen t h e i r research a c t i v i t i e s and c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e graduate programs. 1) A r i z o n a State U n i v e r s i t y 2) Eastern Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y 3) U n i v e r s i t y of Maryland 4) Michigan State U n i v e r s i t y 5) U n i v e r s i t y of Nebraska at Omaha


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6) Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y 7) P o r t l a n d State U n i v e r s i t y The graduate programs at these schools are now coordinated through the N a t i o n a l C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e Education Consortium (NCJEC) which was e s t a b l i s h e d i n November 1973. The Consortium promotes the exchange of ideas and experience i n research and c u r r i c u l u m development between i t s members and thereby strengthens the resources of each school i n a c h i e v i n g i t s p a r t i c u l a r goals. The member schools o f f e r a c r o s s - s e c t i o n of graduate programs i n the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e f i e l d , i n c l u d i n g c o r r e c t i o n s , rehab i l i t a t i o n , operations research, law enforcement, c r i m i n a l law, p o l i c e t r a i n i n g and f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . The consortium e f f o r t i s a s s i s t e d by a program c o o r d i n a t o r , who arranges r e g u l a r meetings of consortium members and a l s o monitors progress i n i n d i v i d u a l programs. There are s e v e r a l areas i n which t h i s consortium can be expected to have an impact on the o v e r a l l development of e d u c a t i o n a l programs i n c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e : 1) two of the member schools have w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l programs; the other f i v e can b e n e f i t g r e a t l y from consortium i n t e r a c t i o n ; 2) a d u p l i c a t i o n of e f f o r t can be avoided; member schools can provide s p e c i a l courses and s e r v i c e s which are not a v a i l a b l e i n i n d i v i d u a l programs; 3) c o o r d i n a t i o n of the broad scope of consortium a c t i v i t i e s can l e a d to the development of v a l u a b l e o p e r a t i o n a l g u i d e l i n e s f o r other schools i n t e r e s t e d i n the development of c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e programs. 1

Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y s Program I n s t i t u t e of Chemical A n a l y s i s , A p p l i c a t i o n s and F o r e n s i c Science. Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y i s the l a r g e s t p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t y i n the n a t i o n . I t has gained prominence as a leader i n cooperat i v e education, i n which a l t e r n a t e p e r i o d s of work and study make up a student's program. T h i s form of education f o s t e r s c l o s e t i e s with the community and encourages the establishment of degree programs r e l e v a n t to the needs of s o c i e t y . Thus, f o r example, Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y has one of the l a r g e s t programs i n c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e i n the n a t i o n . Imaginative programs s i m i l a r l y r e s u l t i n the s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s from t h i s type of o r i e n t a tion. Thus, a work-study Ph.D. program i n which a student spends up to one year i n an i n d u s t r i a l s e t t i n g has been e s t a b l i s h e d i n the Department of Chemistry a t Northeastern. With the award of the LEAA e d u c a t i o n a l development grant i n J u l y 1973, the d e c i s i o n was r a p i d l y reached between personnel i n the C o l l e g e of C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e and the Department of Chemistry to concentrate development i n the area of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . T h i s d e c i s i o n was based on the strengths i n the College of C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e , the Department of Chemistry ( e s p e c i a l l y i n chemical a n a l y s i s and m a t e r i a l s science) and the c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o u t l i n e d



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i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n i n terms of the growth and importance of forensic science. In order to c a r r y out development programs i n f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e , the I n s t i t u t e of Chemical A n a l y s i s , A p p l i c a t i o n s and F o r e n s i c Science was e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s I n s t i t u t e , a separate o r g a n i z a t i o n on campus, has research and t r a i n i n g as i t s main a c t i v i t i e s with s p e c i a l emphasis i n the a p p l i c a t i o n of chemical a n a l y s i s to f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . The I n s t i t u t e i s f u r t h e r developing programs at the present time i n pharmaceutical a n a l y s i s and energy research; i t s o v e r a l l philosophy i s thus the a p p l i c a t i o n of chemical e x p e r t i s e to s o c i a l problems through the team e f f o r t s of chemists and p r a c t i t i o n e r s . The I n s t i t u t e i s organized i n t o two d i v i s i o n s : (1) Organic/ Biochemical A n a l y s i s (B.L. Karger), supported by f a c u l t y from the Department of Chemistry and the C o l l e g e s of Pharmacy and C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e ; and (2) M a t e r i a l s Science/Inorganic A n a l y s i s (B.C. Giessen), supported by f a c u l t y from the Departments of Chemistry, Mechanical Engineering, and the College of C r i m i n a l Justice. Each d i v i s i o n has a f u l l - t i m e s e n i o r s c i e n t i s t (one i n mass spectrometry and one i n m a t e r i a l s science) as w e l l as p o s t - d o c t o r a l f e l l o w s and graduate students. We s h a l l f i r s t d e s c r i b e current research a c t i v i t i e s i n f o r e n s i c science and then o u t l i n e our e f f o r t s i n c u r r i c u l u m development at the graduate l e v e l . F o r e n s i c Science Research

at Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y

Research must be an important component of the u n i v e r s i t y graduate program i n f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e . While such e f f o r t s w i l l t y p i c a l l y be of longer range s i g n i f i c a n c e than found i n s t u d i e s conducted i n on-going c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r i e s , i t i s necessary that the needs of f o r e n s i c science be always kept i n mind. T h i s can only be accomplished by c l o s e communication between personnel i n the I n s t i t u t e and the f o r e n s i c science community. We have found three f a c t o r s to be important i n the achievement of e f f e c t i v e communication. F i r s t , we maintain l i a i s o n with p r a c t i c i n g f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s i n r e g i o n a l and f e d e r a l l a b o r a t o r i e s who have not only provided v a l u a b l e advice and i n f o r m a t i o n but have a l s o cooperated by o f f e r i n g samples f o r research and t e s t s (e.g., ink standards, a u t h e n t i c a t e d paper samples, gun metal samples, h a l l u c i n o g e n i c drugs). I t i s our hope that t h i s communication l i n k w i l l lead to f i e l d t e s t i n g of u s e f u l methods developed i n the I n s t i t u t e and the r a p i d d i s s e m i n a t i o n of such information. Second, f o r e n s i c science input i s provided by personnel from the C o l l e g e of C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e . Here, an overa l l view of the impact r e s u l t s of research on the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system, i n c l u d i n g l e g a l and s o c i a l aspects of the work, i s achieved. T h i r d , i t i s necessary that one or more members of the s t a f f are experienced as c r i m i n a l i s t s and are a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n common research p r o j e c t s with other I n s t i t u t e members



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to provide input on the relevance of these p r o j e c t s to the needs of the f o r e n s i c community. One of us (JMP) worked f o r nine years i n the Pittsburgh-Allegheny Crime Laboratory and was a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n the M.S. program i n f o r e n s i c chemistry j o i n t l y operated by t h i s l a b o r a t o r y and the Department of Chemistry of the U n i v e r s i t y of P i t t s b u r g h . While f o r e n s i c science input i s perhaps the most important, r e l e v a n t information from s e v e r a l areas such as a n a l y t i c a l techniques, t o x i c o l o g y , m a t e r i a l s s c i e n c e , b i o l o g y , e t c . i s o f t e n necessary. This means that the most e f f e c t i v e approach i s achieved through the formation of i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y teams f o r the attack on p a r t i c u l a r research problems. This i n t e r d i s c i p l i n ary approach i s , of course, r e q u i r e d i n any complex area i n v o l v ing problems of s o c i a l relevance. S p e c i f i c P r o j e c t s . Having discussed those components necessary f o r s u c c e s s f u l performance of research, we w i l l examine some of the p r o j e c t s c u r r e n t l y i n progress (or r e c e n t l y completed) i n f o r e n s i c science. The Organic/Biochemical A n a l y s i s D i v i s i o n c u r r e n t l y has s e v e r a l p r o j e c t s i n progress. One of these i n v o l v e s the use of modern l i q u i d chromatography (LC) f o r the a n a l y s i s of b a r b i t u rates from b i o l o g i c a l samples, e.g. blood, u r i n e , l i v e r . Rapid separation of mixtures of b a r b i t u r a t e s i s achieved using a 25 cm long column c o n t a i n i n g a small p a r t i c l e diameter (y lOu) reverse phase packing (n-octadecyl group chemically bonded to s i l i c a ) and water-methanol solvent mixtures. A simple method has been developed f o r the a n a l y s i s of the b a r b i t r u a t e s from l i v e r s p e c i mens i n which an e t h y l acetate e x t r a c t i s i n j e c t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o the LC system. Figure 1 shows a chromatogram of such an e x t r a c t i n which i t i s c l e a r l y seen that i m p u r i t i e s do not i n t e r f e r e with the a n a l y s i s . With t h i s procedure,less than 50 ng of b a r b i t u r a t e i n l i v e r can be conveniently determined. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the gas chromatographic (GC) a n a l y s i s of the l i v e r e x t r a c t s i n v o l v e s more extensive clean-up procedures s i n c e i m p u r i t i e s overlap the p o s i t i o n s of the b a r b i t u r a t e s i n the chromatogram. This example i l l u s t r a t e s one s i t u a t i o n i n which modern LC i s s u p e r i o r to GC i n f o r e n s i c t o x i c o l o g y . A second p r o j e c t i n v o l v e s the a n a l y s i s of ink dyes by modern LC using a reverse phase small p a r t i c l e diameter column. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of inks i n handwritten signatures can be important i n the f i e l d of questioned documents. Since ink formul a t i o n s are p e r i o d i c a l l y changed by manufacturers, i t i s at times p o s s i b l e to date the handwritten signature. Current pract i c e i n v o l v e s punching out a small spot of the s i g n a t u r e , followed by e x t r a c t i o n and t h i n l a y e r chromatographic (TLC) development (5). Use of modern LC can lead to b e t t e r r e s o l u t i o n , more s e n s i t i v e d e t e c t i o n , and where necessary, b e t t e r q u a n t i t a t i o n than TLC. We have developed a simple gradient system f o r the separa-



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t i o n of c l a s s e s of ink dyes with v i s i b l e s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y and fluorescence d e t e c t i o n . The combination of these two d e t e c t i o n systems can o f t e n l e a d to a b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the inks than simple TLC. Our method i s c u r r e n t l y being t e s t e d on standard inks k i n d l y s u p p l i e d by R. B r u n e l l e of the Bureau of A l c o h o l , Tobacco and Firearms, Department of the Treasury. We p l a n to employ r e f r a c t i v e index d e t e c t i o n to examine f i l l e r m a t e r i a l s i n inks (e.g. r e s i n s ) . The Organic/Biochemical A n a l y s i s D i v i s i o n has strengths i n mass spectrometry, as w e l l as i n modern chromatographic a n a l y s i s . F o r e n s i c research i n mass spectrometry c u r r e n t l y i n v o l v e s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of h a l l u c i n o g e n i c drugs ( k i n d l y s u p p l i e d by Stanley P. Sobol, Drug Enforcement Agency, Department of J u s t i c e ) , ink dyes (coupled o f f - l i n e to LC s e p a r a t i o n ) , and t o x i c o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s of drug metabolites. From a l l of the above, i t should be c l e a r that modern organic a n a l y t i c a l techniques can play an important r o l e i n f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e , and that u n i v e r s i t y r e s e a r c h ers can c o n t r i b u t e to t h i s f i e l d by developing meaningful a p p l i c a tions. The f o r e n s i c science research of the M a t e r i a l s Science/ Inorganic A n a l y s i s D i v i s i o n i s based on a p p l i c a t i o n of the r e search c a p a b i l i t i e s i n these two f i e l d s , e s p e c i a l l y X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n ( d i f f r a c t o m e t e r s , powder cameras, s i n g l e c r y s t a l equipment), scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy with energy d i s p e r s i v e X-ray a n a l y s i s , transmission e l e c t r o n microscopy and e l e c t r o n d i f f r a c t i o n , metallography and o p t i c a l microscopy, m e t a l l u r g i c a l s t r e n g t h t e s t s , d i f f e r e n t i a l scanning c a l o r i m e t r y , and other, conventional a n a l y t i c a l methods. The m a t e r i a l s science approach to f o r e n s i c science i s described i n d e t a i l i n another chapter of t h i s book (6), which a l s o contains d e t a i l s of two comprehensive research p r o j e c t s p r e s e n t l y i n progress. The f i r s t of these p r o j e c t s concerns the recovery of o b l i t e r a t e d s e r i a l numbers on f i r e a r m s . To prevent weapons t r a c i n g , c r i m i n a l s f r e q u e n t l y attempt to remove stamped i d e n t i f i c a t i o n marks by f i l i n g away the number. I t i s the task of the firearms examiner to t r y to recover these numbers by procedures such as e t c h i n g . A l t e r n a t e methods of recovery using the methods of m a t e r i a l s science are under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , a d i f f e r e n t approach has been taken by developing a gun tagging scheme using a matrix code of l a s e r - d r i l l e d small h o l e s . These holes penetrate deep i n t o the metal and can be placed i n such a p o s i t i o n on the gun that attempts at erasure may destroy the e f f e c t i v e use of the gun (7). A second p r o j e c t discussed i n d e t a i l i n reference (6) i n v o l v e s the comparative i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of paper by the study of i t s i n o r g a n i c , mineral components. X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n techniques and scanning e l e c t r o n microscope X-ray a n a l y s i s provide good t e s t s of i d e n t i t y . Figure 2 shows the SEM X-ray a n a l y s i s spectrum of the i n o r g a n i c components of a paper; the s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e of t h i s method i s the good q u a l i t y of the a n a l y t i c a l data which r e s u l t s from c a r e f u l ashing of the paper p r i o r to energy d i s p e r s i v e


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TIME, minutes

Figure 1. Liquid chromatographic separation of an ethyl acetate liver extract of barbiturates. Column: reverse phase, n-octadecyl groups chemically bonded to 10/x silica; mobile phase: methanol/water.

ENERGY, KeV Figure 2. SEM x-ray energy spectrum of Eaton's corrasable bond paper, ashed at 440°C in oxygen, showing six distinct peaks corresponding (with increasing energy) to Al, Si, S, Ca, and Ti (two peaks)


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analysis. In a s e r i e s of 54 papers examined by t h i s method, 98% of a l l p a i r s were found to have s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t X-ray spectra. The a p p l i c a t i o n of other methods of elemental a n a l y s i s such as atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy i s under study.


Education Programs Basic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The growth of f o r e n s i c science programs at 2- and 4-year c o l l e g e s i n the l a s t few years has been discussed above (3,4). However, at the graduate l e v e l the number of programs i s small, as evidenced by Table I which l i s t s a l l M.S. programs i n the n a t i o n . Yet the need f o r graduate l e v e l t r a i n e d f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s i s c l e a r . F i r s t , there are ever-expanding needs f o r i n d i v i d u a l s properly t r a i n e d at the graduate l e v e l as the c r i m i n a l i s t i c s laboratory at a l l governmental l e v e l s increases in sophistication. Second, i n d i v i d u a l s t r a i n e d both academically and p r a c t i c a l l y are required f o r teaching i n community c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . While at the present time p r a c t i c i n g c r i m i n a l i s t s o f t e n handle courses, the n e c e s s i t y f o r having f u l l - t i m e personnel p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i s evident. It has been argued that even though f o r e n s i c science p o s i t i o n s are a v a i l a b l e at c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r i e s , a s p e c i f i c degree program i n t h i s area i s unnecessary. In t h i s view, i t i s f a r b e t t e r to provide the student with a strong background i n a science degree program (e.g. chemistry) and leave the t r a i n i n g i n f o r e n s i c s to the l a b o r a t o r y where the i n d i v i d u a l i s h i r e d . While no one can disagree with the need f o r a strong s c i e n t i f i c foundation upon which to base a career i n f o r e n s i c science, there are s t i l l cogent reasons f o r having a s p e c i f i c degree program i n t h i s f i e l d at the u n i v e r s i t i e s . F i r s t , there are a number of students i n t e r e s t e d i n careers i n f o r e n s i c s , and i t i s important that t h e i r i n t e r e s t be encouraged during t h e i r academic program. The danger e x i s t s that i f such students pursue a s t r i c t s c i e n t i f i c degree program they w i l l become involved i n other careers, as the science program may very w e l l be o r i e n t e d i n d i r e c t i o n s other than f o r e n s i c s . Second, an a p p r e c i a t i o n of the b a s i c foundations of the f i e l d (e.g. proof beyond reasonable doubt) and of the r e l a t i o n s h i p of the crime l a b o r a t o r y to the r e s t of the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system should be studied during an i n d i v i d u a l * s e d u c a t i o n a l development at a u n i v e r s i t y . As Turner has pointed out (8), the f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t must be more than a t r a i n e d a n a l y s t . T h i r d , while some on-the-job t r a i n i n g w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be necessary, the time before an i n d i v i d u a l i s a c o n t r i b u t i n g member of the crime l a b o r a t o r y may be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced, i f such a person has s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g at a u n i v e r s i t y . F i n a l l y , f o r e n s i c science educators can most l o g i c a l l y be supplied by the u n i v e r s i t i e s .


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M.

S. Program i n F o r e n s i c Chemistry

With these i n t r o d u c t o r y comments i n mind we would now l i k e to examine the M.S. program i n f o r e n s i c chemistry that i s being planned f o r September 1975 at Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y . Personnel from the I n s t i t u t e v i s i t e d many of the schools l i s t e d i n Table I, as w e l l as a number of p r a c t i c i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s . We wish to thank a l l those who f r e e l y gave advice; without t h e i r help we would not have been able to advance to the present stage. As i n research, a team e f f o r t was made by members of the I n s t i t u t e i n the c u r r i c u l u m development. Personnel experienced i n f o r e n s i c science i n t e r a c t e d with chemists, t o x i c o l o g i s t s and m a t e r i a l s s c i e n t i s t s to achieve a f i n a l program. It was q u i c k l y r e a l i z e d that the term f o r e n s i c science connotated an extremely broad subject i n c l u d i n g such areas as chemist r y , pathology, p s y c h i a t r y and law. In order to provide more than a simple general background i t was f e l t necessary to concent r a t e at the graduate l e v e l , and based on the a v a i l a b l e e x p e r t i s e , f o r e n s i c chemistry was the l o g i c a l s e l e c t i o n . T h i s s u b s p e c i a l t y of f o r e n s i c science represents i n the view of many experts the most important aspect of a crime l a b o r a t o r y s o p e r a t i o n at the present time. We were encouraged i n t h i s d e c i s i o n by the successf u l o p e r a t i o n of the U n i v e r s i t y of P i t t s b u r g h M a s t e r s program i n f o r e n s i c chemistry. The M.S. program i n f o r e n s i c chemistry i s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y i n nature, i n v o l v i n g cooperation between the Department of Chemist r y , College of C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e and the I n s t i t u t e of Chemical A n a l y s i s , A p p l i c a t i o n s and F o r e n s i c Science. The I n s t i t u t e i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the academic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the program. For admission, an a p p l i c a n t must have an undergraduate degree i n the p h y s i c a l , l i f e or f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e s i n c l u d i n g courses i n : 1) general chemistry, 2) organic chemistry, 3) a n a l y t i c a l chemistry, 4) c a l c u l u s , 5) p h y s i c s . D e f i c i e n c i e s can be removed by t a k i n g undergraduate courses on campus. Although not p r e r e q u i s i t e s , courses i n b i o l o g y are d e s i r a b l e (e.g. general b i o l o g y , botany, microbiology). Table I I presents a specimen program of the f u l l - t i m e M.S. degree i n f o r e n s i c chemistry at Northeastern which r e q u i r e s 1-1/4 years f o r completion. Part-time students take a comparable program; however, a slower pace i s t y p i c a l l y s e l e c t e d , with 2-1/4 to 3-1/4 years r e q u i r e d f o r completion. The program i s p r i m a r i l y designed to o f f e r a t e r m i n a l degree f o r students seeking immediate f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r y employment and s e c o n d a r i l y to serve as a source of q u a l i f i e d a p p l i c a n t s f o r a Ph.D. degree i n f o r e n s i c chemistry (see l a t e r ) . While i t i s not p o s s i b l e to d i s c u s s i n depth a l l the courses, i t i s appropriate to overview the program. (Further d e t a i l s can be obtained by w r i t i n g to Dr. B.L. Karger or J . M. Parker.) The program c o n s i s t s of four quarter-year p e r i o d s of course work and one quarter-year i n t e r n s h i p . We view the f i r s t quarter 1

1


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TABLE 1 Current Masters Degree Programs i n F o r e n s i c Science


School

Degree Offered

Concentration

C a l i f o r n i a State College (Los Angeles)

M.S.

Criminalistics

Georgetown U n i v e r s i t y

M.S.

Forensic

George Washington U n i v e r s i t y

M.S.

F o r e n s i c Science

Indiana U n i v e r s i t y

M.A.

F o r e n s i c Studies

John Jay College of C r i m i n a l Justice

M.S.

S o c i a l Science with o p t i o n i n Criminal Justice and Criminology

M. Crim. D. Crim.

Criminology and Criminalistics

M.S.

Forensic

U n i v e r s i t v of C a l i f o r n i a (Berkeley)

U n i v e r s i t y of P i t t s b u r g h

Science


Chemistry

In Forensic Science; Davies, G.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1975. Elective

Biometrics

Masters Paper

In-Service T r a i n i n g

Elective

F a l l Quarter (Second Year)

I

Seminar (or Winter)

I

Concepts i n Toxicology

Elective

Legal Aspects of F o r e n s i c Science

Explosives

Arson and

Summer Quarter

Biochemistry

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of C r i m i n a l Justice

Forensic Materials

F o r e n s i c Chemistry Technique I I with Laboratory

Crime Scene I n v e s t i g a t i o n

Modern Methods of A n a l y s i s with Laboratory Forensic Chemistry Techniques I with Laboratory

Spring Quarter

Winter Quarter

i n F o r e n s i c Chemistry

Curriculum

F a l l Quarter

of M.S.

Specimen Full-Time

TABLE I I



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of the academic program as p r o v i d i n g the student a foundation i n f o r e n s i c chemistry, with courses i n graduate l e v e l instrumenta l a n a l y s i s ( l e c t u r e and l a b o r a t o r y ) , biochemistry, b a s i c c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e and f o r e n s i c m a t e r i a l s s c i e n c e . For example, i n the a n a l y t i c a l chemistry course the student w i l l l e a r n a number of methods such as modern l i q u i d chromatography, gas chromatographymass spectrometry, scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy and X-ray d i f f r a c tion. This b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l then be a p p l i e d i n the two l e c t u r e / l a b o r a t o r y q u a r t e r s . These courses w i l l i n v o l v e an examination o f - d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s of evidence (e.g., i n k s , drugs, p a i n t s , blood s t a i n s ) i n c l u d i n g the use of modern instrumentat i o n . F o r e n s i c microscopy w i l l a l s o be taught i n the courses. The course on crime scene i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l be o f f e r e d by the C o l l e g e of C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e and w i l l emphasize the importance of scene examination and evidence sampling. An improper sampling method can i n v a l i d a t e the r e s u l t s of the f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r y . The course on t o x i c o l o g y w i l l emphasize the f o r e n s i c aspects of the s u b j e c t . In the t h i r d quarter, we p l a n to o f f e r a course which i n cludes the p r e s e n t a t i o n of expert witness testimony i n a mock court of law with the a s s i s t a n c e of the Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y Law School. P r a c t i c e t r i a l sessions with student attorneys are envisioned. The course on arson and e x p l o s i v e s w i l l d e a l with d e t e c t i o n of r e l a t e d crimes, and b i o m e t r i c s i n the f i f t h quarter w i l l cover concepts of s t a t i s t i c s important i n f o r e n s i c chemistry. The student w i l l take three e l e c t i v e s during h i s degree program. T y p i c a l l y , we expect he w i l l e n r o l l i n graduate l e c t u r e courses i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry (e.g., s e p a r a t i o n s , o p t i c a l methods of a n a l y s i s , computerized i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ) . However, i f he i s so i n c l i n e d , f u r t h e r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n biochemistry, t o x i cology or m a t e r i a l s science w i l l be p o s s i b l e . A course on management o f f e r e d by the College of Business might a l s o be s e l e c t e d , i f the student wished to u l t i m a t e l y p l a y an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o l e i n the crime l a b o r a t o r y . An important f e a t u r e i s the three-month i n t e r n s h i p , scheduled f o r the f o u r t h quarter, i n which the student devotes f u l l - t i m e to work i n an approved, p r a c t i c i n g f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r y . We have made arrangements with a number of l a b o r a t o r i e s a t the l o c a l and r e g i o n a l l e v e l i n New England and throughout the country to accept our students. T h i s i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g i s scheduled i n the summer quarter f o r two reasons. F i r s t , i t comes a f t e r the completion of the major p o r t i o n of the course requirements. Thus, a student w i l l be able to best b e n e f i t from the work environment on the b a s i s of h i s academic t r a i n i n g . Moreover, as a student must achieve a grade average of at l e a s t B minus, a screening of student q u a l i t y i s achieved p r i o r to i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . Second, the summer i s the time of g r e a t e s t need of crime l a b o r a t o r i e s f o r a s s i s t a n c e because of v a c a t i o n schedules. Upon comp l e t i o n of the degree program, we hope that many of these s t u dents w i l l r e t u r n to t h e i r i n - s e r v i c e l a b o r a t o r y f o r f u l l - t i m e


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f

employment. The Master s Paper w i l l be w r i t t e n i n the f i f t h quarter; i n many cases i t w i l l i n v o l v e a write-up of a p r o j e c t performed during the work p e r i o d . In the M. S. program we have t r i e d to achieve a balance between the t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l aspects of f o r e n s i c chemistry. Fundamental p r i n c i p l e s are presented i n the f i r s t quarter, and the emphasis i s then g r a d u a l l y s h i f t e d to the more o p e r a t i o n a l aspects of the p r o f e s s i o n , l e a d i n g u l t i m a t e l y to the i n - s e r v i c e training period. Some f l e x i b i l i t y i s b u i l t i n t o the program through the e l e c t i v e s and by the type of p o s i t i o n taken i n the crime l a b o r a t o r y during the three-month work p e r i o d . How great i s the student i n t e r e s t i n such a program? While we have no f i r m s t a t i s t i c s , we have reason to b e l i e v e that i t w i l l not be d i f f i c u l t to f i l l a v a i l a b l e p o s i t i o n s (ca. 15 - 20 f u l l - t i m e ) with q u a l i f i e d candidates. Information from e x i s t i n g M.S. programs i n f o r e n s i c science i n d i c a t e s that there are many more a p p l i c a n t s than p o s i t i o n s a v a i l a b l e , and we have had i n q u i r i e s from over 40 students and 20 u n i v e r s i t i e s even at t h i s e a r l y stage of our program. Student i n t e r e s t i n careers i n f o r e n s i c science undoubtedly follows the n a t i o n a l trend toward p r o f e s s i o n a l education with s o c i a l relevance (e.g. law, a l l i e d health professions, e t c . ) . F i n a n c i a l support of student t u i t i o n through p r e - s e r v i c e and i n - s e r v i c e Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) grants and loans i s expected. In the case of loans, the p r i n c i p a l i s f o r g i v e n at the r a t e of 25% f o r each subsequent year of s e r v i c e i n the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system. Some students may a l s o be e l i g i b l e f o r graduate teaching a s s i s t a n t s h i p s or f e l l o w s h i p s . The f i n a l point to consider i s the job of placement of the i n d i v i d u a l with an M.S. degree i n f o r e n s i c chemistry. We have already pointed out the c l e a r need f o r such t r a i n e d people, but does t h i s t r a n s l a t e i n t o p o s i t i o n s ? Experience such as that at the U n i v e r s i t y of P i t t s b u r g h i s encouraging, where most of the 15 students i n a c l a s s have secured p o s i t i o n s w e l l before graduation. There are more than 200 f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r i e s i n the n a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g some very extensive f a c i l i t i e s (e.g. the FBI and DEA laboratories). In a d d i t i o n , p o s i t i o n s a l s o e x i s t with p r i v a t e c r i m i n a l i s t s and u n i v e r s i t y , t o x i c o l o g y and medical examiner l a b o r a t o r i e s . Considering these p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r employment as w e l l as the growing importance of c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e i n s o c i e t y , i t i s reasonable to expect a f i r m job market f o r a number of years to come, e s p e c i a l l y c o n s i d e r i n g the small number of M.S. f o r e n s i c chemists being graduated. Firm s t a t i s t i c s on employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s are c u r r e n t l y being assembled by the F o r e n s i c Science Foundation of the American Academy of F o r e n s i c Sciences under a grant from LEAA, as discussed by Dr. Peterson i n t h i s volume (9). The r e s u l t s of t h i s study w i l l be i n v a l u a b l e i n q u a n t i f y i n g f u t u r e employment trends i n forensic science.


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Ph.D. Program As p a r t of the LEAA e d u c a t i o n a l development grant, i t i s our g o a l to develop a Ph.D. program i n f o r e n s i c chemistry. Since t h i s program i s only i n the planning stage, i t i s not appropriate to d i s c u s s i t i n d e t a i l . However, i t may prove u s e f u l t o the reader to present some broad g u i d e l i n e s . We b e l i e v e that achievement of the d o c t o r a l degree i n f o r e n s i c chemistry r e q u i r e s a strong chemistry background with a good measure of subsequent s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . We would expect that most students e n t e r i n g the d o c t o r a l program have obtained an M.S. degree i n f o r e n s i c chemistry (or f o r e n s i c science) or o f f e r comparable experience. Students with an M.S. degree i n Chemistry may be e l i g i b l e but would have to make up those p a r t s of the f o r e n s i c chemistry M.S. program not covered i n t h e i r education so as to earn t h i s degree during t h e i r r e s i d e n c e . For the p r e s e r v i c e i n d i v i d u a l we look toward an i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d of roughly one year and hope t o i n v o l v e l a r g e r e g i o n a l and f e d e r a l l a b o r a t o r i e s . For those i n the Northeastern M.S. program wishing to continue f o r a Ph.D., there may be some combination of the three-month and one-year work p e r i o d s . The i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d would be waived f o r e n t e r i n g students with extens i v e f o r e n s i c experience. We a n t i c i p a t e that the Ph.D. i n f o r e n s i c chemistry w i l l again be an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y degree i n v o l v i n g the p r e v i o u s l y mentioned academic e n t i t i e s f o r the M.S. program. The Ph.D. t h e s i s research should i n v o l v e the same r i g o r as imposed on a r e g u l a r chemistry or other science degree. Undoubtedly, much of the research w i l l be performed w i t h i n the I n s t i t u t e ; however, there may be c e r t a i n cases i n which research under s t r i c t superv i s i o n at a w e l l - q u a l i f i e d f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r y might be accepted. The c o n d i t i o n s under which t h i s l a t t e r approach might occur have yet to be worked out. Conclusion T h i s paper has o u t l i n e d a c t i v i t i e s i n f o r e n s i c science over the past s e v e r a l years at Northeastern U n i v e r s i t y . The establishment of the I n s t i t u t e of Chemical A n a l y s i s , A p p l i c a t i o n s and F o r e n s i c Science has g r e a t l y aided i n the development of f o r e n s i c research and e d u c a t i o n a l programs. Several years ago Bradford and Samuel (10) recommended the establishment of f o r e n s i c science i n s t i t u t e s to provide s e r v i c e to the p r o f e s s i o n . While we have not e x a c t l y followed t h e i r i d e a s , there are s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e i r recommendations and our a c t i v i t i e s . As time progresses, i t i s hoped that research and education at t h i s I n s t i t u t e w i l l make s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the f i e l d of f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e .


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Acknowledgment The authors wish to thank the Law Enforcement A s s i s t a n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r the support of the programs i n f o r e n s i c chemi s t r y a t Northeastern through an e d u c a t i o n a l development grant. In a d d i t i o n , acknowledgment i s given to those p r a c t i c i n g f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s who have given us the b e n e f i t of t h e i r experience. The development of our program a t Northeastern has been g r e a t l y aided by the encouragement of these i n d i v i d u a l s . C o n t r i b u t i o n #2 from the I n s t i t u t e of Chemical A n a l y s i s , A p p l i c a t i o n s and F o r e n s i c Science. Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

W i l l i a m s , R.L., Anal. Chem., (1973), 45(13), 1076A. Curry, A.S., Nature, (1972), 235, 369. Turner, R.F., Fox, W. and McGee, W.W., t h i s volume. S a f e r s t e i n , R. and E p s t e i n , R., t h i s volume. B r u n e l l e , R.L. and Pro, M.J., J. Assoc. Official Anal. Chem., (1972), 55, 823, and paper by B r u n e l l e , R.L. and Cantu, A., t h i s volume. 6. Giessen, B.C., Polk, D.E., and Barnard, J.A.W., t h i s volume. 7. Polk, D.E. and Giessen, B.C., J. F o r . Sci., i n the p r e s s . 8. Turner, R.F., t h i s volume. 9. Peterson, J.L., this volume. 10. Bradford, L.W., and Samuel, A.H., in "Law Enforcement Science and Technology", Academic Press, New York, 1970, V o l . I I I , p. 465.


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