the causes represent our experimen tal r e s u l t s . W e h a v e d e s c r i b e d t h r e e levels for e n c o d i n g c h e m i c a l k n o w l edge: p r i m a r y , s e c o n d a r y , a n d t e r t i a r y . T h e p r i m a r y level of k n o w l edge r e l a t e s s y m p t o m s directly to c a u s e s ; t h e s e c o n d a r y level r e l a t e s s y m p t o m s to s y m p t o m s . T h e r u l e s in A A d i a g n o s i s , g e n e r a t e d after compil ing t h e s e c o n d a r y level of k n o w l e d g e , r e l a t e s y m p t o m s . T h e t e r t i a r y level d e a l s w i t h s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h o n e c a u s e c a n give r i s e t o m o r e t h a n o n e c o m b i n a t i o n of s y m p t o m s . We gratefully acknowledge the continuing fi nancial support of this work by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment and the Academic Development Fund at UWO. We thank William Browett. Zbigniew (lasvna. and Mohamed Moussa for their contributions to the earlier stages of this project.
(19) Browett, W. R.; Cox, Τ. Α.; Stillman, M . J . In Expert System Applications in Chemistry; Hohne, Β. Α.; Pierce, T. H., Eds.; A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l Society: Washington, DC, 1989; p. 210. (20) Lahiri, S.; Zhu, Q.; Stillman, M . J . Proceedings of the MOE Technology Transfer Conference; Environment Ontario: Tor onto, Ontario, Canada, 1990, p. 672. (21) Stillman, M. J.; Huang, G.; Lahiri, S.; Zhu, Q. In Expert Systems World Con gress Proceedings; Liebowitz, J . J . , Ed.; Pergamon Press: New York, 1991; p. 2645. (22) Leaman, C. M. AI Expert 1989, 4(5), 28. (23) Brown, D. E. AI Expert 1990, 5(2), 32. (24) Furse, G. In Expert Systems Principles and Case Studies; Forsyth, R., Ed.; Chap man and Hall C o m p u t i n g : London, 1989; p. 190. (25) Bowerman, R. G.; Glover, D. E. In Putting Expert Systems into Practice; Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, 1988; p. 94. (26) Bridge, T. P.; Williams, M. H.; Fell, A. F. Chem. Brit. 1987, 23, 1085.
References ( 1 ) Boose, J. H. In Advances in Human Fac tors/Ergonomics; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1986: p. 2. (2) Johnson, P. Y.; Burnstein, I.; Crary, J.; Evans, M.; Wang, T. In Expert System Applications in Chemistry; Hohne, Β. Α.; Pierce, T. H., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1989; p. 102. (3) Stillman, M. J.; Lahiri, S.; Zhu, Q. Proceedings of the MOE Technology Transfer Conference; Environment Ontario: Tor onto, Ontario, Canada, 1990; p. 628. (4) Settle, F. Α., Jr.; Pleva, M. A. Chemom. Intell. 1Mb. Syst. 1991, 11, 13. (51 Van Leeuwen, J. Α.; Buydens, L.M.C.; Vandeginste. B.G.M.; Kateman. G. Trends Anal. Chem. 1990, 9, 49. (6) Hindriks, R.; Maris, F.; Vink. J.; P e e t e r s , Α.; De Smet, M.; M a s s a r t , D. L.; Buydens, L. /. Chromatogr. 1989. 485, 255. (7) Harner, T. J.; Levy, G. C ; Dudewicz, E. J.; Delaglio, F.; Kumar, A. In AI Appli cations in Chemistry; Pierce, T. H.; Hohne, Β. Α., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986; p. 337. 181 Moldoveanu. S.: Rapson, C. A. Anal. Chem. 1987, 59, 1207. (9) Luinge, H. J.; Kleywegt, G. J.; Van't Klooster, Η. Α.; Van Der Maas, J. H. J. Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 1987, 27, 95. (10) Blaff'ert, T. Anal. Chim. Acta 1986, 191, 161. (11) Bach, R.; Karnicky, J.; Abbott, S. In AI Applications in Chemistry; Pierce, T. H.; Hohne, Β. Α., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986; p. 278. (12) Schoenmakers, P. J.; Peeters, Α.; Lynch, R. J. /. Chromatogr. 1990, 506, 169. (13) Woodruff, Η. Β.; Smith, G. M. Anal. Chem. 1980,52, 2321. ( 14) Huixiao, H.; Xinquan, X. / Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 1990. 30, 203. (15) Takeuchi, K.; Kuroda, C ; Ishida, M. / Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 1990. 30, 22. (16) Birk, J. P. In Expert System Applica tions in Chemistry; Hohne, Β. Α.; Pierce, T. H., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington. DC. 1989: p. 20. (17) Browett, W. R.; Stillman, M. J. Prog. Anal. Spectrosc. 1989, 12. 73. (18) Henschen, L. In Encyclopedia of Artifi cial Intelligence; Shapiro, S. C ; Eckroth, D., Eds.; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1987; Vol. 2, p. 822.
Sharbari Ixihiri is a student working un der the direction of Martin Stillman. She received a B.S. degree in 1984 from Osmania University in Hyderabad, India, an M.S. degree in 1986 from the Indian Institute of Technology in Madras, and an M. Tech degree in 1989 from the Indian Institute of Technology in New Delhi. Her research interests include instrumental analysis and environmental modeling.
From Caveman to Chemist Circumstances and Achievements
W
hat was the connection between early chemistry and magic? What was the logic that made alchemists think they could make gold out of lead? Why were gases not recognized until the 17th century? Why did it take 49 years before Avogadro's hypoth esis was accepted? In From Caveman to Chemist, author Hugh Salzberg traces the oddities of chemistry, ex amining cultural and political influences on the ideas of chemists. He follows the evolution of chemistry from the Stone Age beginnings of ceramics and metallurgy, through the rise and decline of alchemy, to the culmination of clas sical chemistry in the late 19th century. Chapters 1 through 9 lead from prehistoric technology, through ancient and medieval sci ence to the study of chemicals and reactions that resulted in the 16th century birth of sci entific chemistry. Subsequent chapters focus on key chemists such as Sala, Boyle. Black, La voisier, Dalton, Berzelius. Laurent, and Arrhenius as they developed the ideas that led to classical chemistry and the concepts of mole cules, chemical reactions, homology, valence, and molecular formulas and structures, among others. Twenty topical illustrations enhance the text. Six timelines and two maps help readers understand the influences of early history on chemistry. About the Author Hugh W. Salzberg taught chemistry at the City University of New York for 35 years and of fered courses in the history of chemistry over a period of 20 years. From Caveman to Chem ist reflects his dual passions for chemistry and history and his profound admiration of the great minds that developed the ideas of chemistry.
Martin J. Stillman is a professor at the University of Western Ontario. He re ceived a B.S. degree in 1969 and a Ph.D. in 1973 from the School of Chemical Sci ences at the University of East Anglia in Norwich, England. His research interests include the application of computers to solve problems in environmental chemis try, metal binding in the protein metallothionein, and the spectroscopic and re dox properties of phthalocyanines and porphyrins.
Hugh W. Salzberg Editor 300 pages (1991) Clothbound: ISBN 0-8412-1786-6 $24.95 Paperbound: ISBN 0-8412-1787-4 $14.95 Ο
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ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 4, FEBRUARY 15, 1992 · 291 A
