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Graphene Oxide Carburization Enhanced Ionization Efficiency for TIMS Isotope Ratio Analysis of Uranium at Trace Level Ling Zhang, Penghui Xiong, Hailu Zhang, Lumin Chen, Jie Xu, Haoxi Wu, and Zhen Qin Anal. Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00543 • Publication Date (Web): 13 May 2019 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 13, 2019
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Analytical Chemistry
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Graphene Oxide Carburization Enhanced Ionization Efficiency for
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TIMS Isotope Ratio Analysis of Uranium at Trace Level
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Ling Zhang, Penghui Xiong, Hailu Zhang, Lumin Chen, Jie Xu, Haoxi Wu*, Zhen Qin*
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Institute of Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900,
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China.
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*Corresponding author: Haoxi Wu, Zhen Qin.
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Email:
[email protected] (H. Wu).
[email protected] (Z. Qin).
8 9
Abstract
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Isotope analysis of trace uranium is important in nuclear safeguards and nuclear
11
forensics, which requires the analytical methodologies with high sensitivity, accuracy and
12
precision. As one of the most powerful techniques in isotopic measurement, thermal
13
ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) usually suffers from its relatively low sensitivity in
14
ultra-trace measurement. To overcome this limitation, we have developed a new filament
15
carburization technique for TIMS, with graphene oxide (GO) as the ionization enhancer.
16
A high and steady ionization efficiency of ~0.2% for uranium was achieved in
17
single-filament mode, which was ten times of the classical double-filament method. With
18
total evaporation (TE) measurements, this method was validated with certified reference
19
materials (CRMs) at picogram, and the relative uncertainties for n(235U)/n(238U) was as
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low as ~1% level. The enhancement mechanism of GO’s promoting effect on uranium
21
ionization was attributed to the uniform microstructure facilitating energy transfer and
22
formation of carbides. This approach provides an alternative simple and rapid method for
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trace uranium isotope analysis with high sensitivity and excellent repeatability. Filament
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carburization and uranium loading could be accomplished within 10 min. This technique
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has great advantage in analysis of trace uranium isotope ratios and can be applied in the
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researches of environmental analysis and nuclear forensics.
27 28
Keywords 1 / 31
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Graphene oxide, Filament carburization, TIMS, Ionization efficiency, Isotope ratio
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analysis
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Introduction
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TIMS is one of the most powerful techniques for the determination of isotope ratios
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of nuclear materials such as uranium and plutonium,1 which plays a significant role in the
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fields of nuclear safeguards,2 nuclear forensics,3 geochemistry4 and environmental
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analysis.5 However, traditional filament loading techniques are suffered from the low
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ionization efficiency (ratio of atoms ionized to sample atoms loaded on a filament) for
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actinides. As for uranium analysis, the ionization efficiency of TIMS with a double
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filament setup is always less than 0.05%.6 The poor ionization efficiency greatly limits
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the accuracy and precision of the isotope ratio measurements for actinides, which always
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present at low amounts below nano-gram level in the environmental samples and swipe
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samples for nuclear forensic and safeguards purpose.7-9 Some critical signature
14
informations in these trace-level samples would not able to be monitored, especially the
15
minor isotopes, which can reflect a more detailed picture inherent to the type of the
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undeclared nuclear-related activities.10 Thus, it is a critical demand on methods for
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promoting the ionization efficiency in TIMS measurements. Any increase in the
18
ionization efficiency will result in higher sensitivity allowing the sample size to be
19
reduced and measurement precision to be improved.
20
Rhenium (Re) filaments have been widely used for sample loading and ionization in
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TIMS analysis due to its high work function.11 And carburization of rhenium filaments
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has been reported as a good choice to enhance the ion emitting of actinide samples,
23
because carbon was found to dissolve into rhenium to form a rhenium-carbon solid
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solution.12,13 The electron work function 5.36 eV of this metal-carbon compound is
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higher than 4.96~4.98 eV of pure rhenium, which will result in a better ion production
26
according to the Saha-Langmuir equation.14 Besides, the formation of actinide carbides
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has been also thought to contribute to the enhanced emission of the actinide metal ions.
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Carbon, as reduction agent, helps the formation of carbides at the expense of volatile
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oxide species, from which it demands a higher temperature for the actinides to release as 2 / 31
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single charged ions. It could reduce the loss of actinide evaporation in an atom form
2
before the filament temperature is high enough for ionization.15,16
3
According to these two proposed mechanisms, various materials such as
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graphite,4,5,17,18 resin bead,19,20 and benzene vapor10,21-24 were used as carbon sources in
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developing carburization techniques for increasing ionization efficiency. The TIMS resin
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bead technique was firstly developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in
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1970s.25 For uranium analysis, a resin bead was initially used to concentrates the uranium
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from a bulk solution. After absorption, it was loaded into the Re cavity by using
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collodion. Due to the enrichment of sample and the formation of U-carbide, it was
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reported to have a high ionization efficiency of 0.58% for uranium.1 However, despite its
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high sensitivity, the resin bead approach is still hindered by long pretreatment time and
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tediousness of fixing a bead on the filament surface. Additionally, this technique is not
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adaptable to single particle analysis. In recently years, benzene vapour-based filament
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carburization technique has been widely used in applications of U&Pu single particle
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analysis10,21,22 and age determination.24 Although this method could get an ionization
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efficiency of 0.2~0.3% for uranium and was much more reproducible, it always required
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a special vacuum instrument to expose the filaments to benzene vapour at high
18
temperature, which is time-consuming, expensive and has a potential risk of benzene
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toxicosis. Recently, a porous ion emitter (PIE) technique was developed for the analysis
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of trace quantities of actinides.26-28 Rhenium and platinum powders were mixed in a
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gluing agent, and then heated to form a porous Pt/Re alloy as the thermal ionization
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emitter. Although the preparation was a little time-consuming and required operation
23
skill, these works showed the porous micro- and nano-structures of ion emitter could
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remarkbly enhance the ion yields.
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Graphene oxide (GO), a two-dimensional nanocarbon material, provides a good
26
choice of carbon source for TIMS filament carburization, with its fascinating properties
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of high specific surface, good thermal & electrical conductivity and strong mechanical
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strength.29-31 Graphene oxide could be well-dispersed in water to form a colloidal solution
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and was proven to have sorption capabilities for radionuclides.32 Herein, the promoting 3 / 31
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effect on uranium ionization using GO as the ion emitter was studied and the mechanism
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was discussed. Based on GO loaded single Re filament, the isotope ratios of uranium
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samples from pg to sub-ng level were determined accurately. A high and steady
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ionization efficiency of 0.2% for uranium was achieved, with a fast filament
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carburization process of less than 10 min. The analysis of swipe samples, river water
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samples and human hairs was also accomplished without any sample enrichment.
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Experimental section
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Reagents
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All chemicals were analytical grade except those noted otherwise, and were used as
10
received. Graphite powder (99.95%, 325 mesh, i.e. with an average size of ~78.2 μm)
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was from Alfa Aesar. Other chemicals, H2SO4, H2O2, HF, K2S2O8, P2O5, KMnO4 and
12
HCl were bought from Beijing Chemical Company. All stock solutions were prepared
13
using ultrapure water.
14
Uranium isotopic certified reference materials (CRM) with the China National
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Standards number GBW04493, GBW04492, GBW04483 were purchased from China
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Institute of Atomic Energy. The certified isotope abundance values for these uranium
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CRMs are displayed in Table S1. The materials were dissolved in 2% HNO3 (v/v, Merck,
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Darmstadt, Germany) and prepared into uranium samples with different concentrations.
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Purified reagent grade I water (Milli-Q Water Purification System (18 MΩ); Millipore,
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Billerica, MA, U.S.A.) were used for all diluted HNO3 solutions.
21
Synthesis of graphene oxide
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Graphene oxide (GO) was prepared by a chemical method based on the modified
23
Hummers-Offeman method.33 Graphite powder (3 g) was added into the mixture of
24
concentrated H2SO4 (12 mL), K2S2O8 (2.5 g) and P2O5 (2.5 g). Then it was treated under
25
80 ℃ for 4.5 h. After cooling to the room temperature, 0.5 L of distilled water was
26
added into the obtained mixture under an ice bath. After filtration, the prepared peroxide
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graphite was dried under 30 ℃ and then added to concentrated H2SO4 (150 mL).
28
KMnO4 (15 g) was added gradually under stirring, and the temperature was kept under 20 4 / 31
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℃ by an ice bath. After stirring for 2 h at 35 ℃, 250 mL distilled water was added under
2
an ice bath and stirred for another 2 h. Successively, 700 mL of distilled water and 30 mL
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of concentrated H2O2 were injected into the mixture. The mixture was filtered and
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washed with an aqueous HCl solution (v/v 1:10) (1 L) followed by the same volume of
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distilled water. After dialysis for a week, GO was filtered and dried under vacuum at 30
6
℃ for 12 h. Figure S1 displays the characterizations of GO.
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Washing of graphene oxide for background reduction
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Graphene oxide (10 mg) was dispersed in 50 mL HNO3 solution (1%, v/v) with
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continuous ultrasonication for 30 min to get homogeneous solution. Then, the solution
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was stirred for 15 min and centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 5 min at room temperature. The
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supernatant was abandoned and the collected GO was washed with 1% HNO3 solution
12
again. After three repeated washing with HNO3, the collected GO was washed with
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ultrapure water twice in the similar procedure. Finally, the collected GO was prepared
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into a colloidal solution with different concentrations.
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Filament Pretreatment
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Prior to the loading of any ionization enhancers or samples, all Re filaments were
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mounted in the filament bake-out unit and pre-treated in a filament degassing Instrument.
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The filaments were slowly heated to 4500 mA (ca. 1750 ℃) resistively and held at this
19
temperature for 30 min under the vacuum of below 5×10−7 mbar, to remove any
20
impurities such as hydrocarbons and environmental uranium. The degassed filaments
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were cooled down at room temperature and used for TIMS measurements.
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GO and sample loading
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2 μL GO colloidal solution (2.5 mg mL-1) after washing procedures was pipetted
24
onto the center of the filament surface carefully. A filament current of 1 A was conducted
25
for resistive heating until the GO solution was completely dried. After cooling for 5 min
26
at RT, the filament was loaded with uranium sample solution always at the same volume
27
of 1 μL, with varied concentrations. Extreme care was taken to localize the sample
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solution exactly onto the surface of the GO layer on filament. Then, the sample solution 5 / 31
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was dried electrothermally at 1 A for approximately 2 min. The prepared filaments were
2
then transferred to the sample turret of TIMS for analysis.
3
Swipe sample preparation
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The swipe samples were prepared according to the ultrasound-assisted acid leaching
5
(UAL) method.34 Swipe samples were collected from a worktable in an accident-tolerant
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fuel (ATF) laboratory of our academy. Three samples were collected by carefully wiping
7
the surface of different areas on the same worktable with three pieces of filter papers,
8
respectively. Each filter paper was then transferred into a clean polystyrene centrifuge
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tube containing 10 mL of 2% HNO3 and kept in ultrasonic bath (with delivered power of
10
50 W) for 2 h. Then the filter paper was removed from the tube and the remaining
11
solution was centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 5 min to separate the undissolved sediments.
12
Finally, the supernatant was transferred to a clean polystyrene centrifuge tube and could
13
be introduced directly on the GO-Re filaments for TIMS measurements. 4 μL swipe
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sample solution was loaded on each filament.
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River water sample preparation
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Two environmental water samples were directly collected from the Fu River near the
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Moon Island Park in Jiangyou, Mianyang city. For each sample, ~10 mL clean surface
18
river water was collected in a clean polystyrene centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 8000
19
rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was transferred to a clean polystyrene centrifuge tube.
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Then, 150 μL HNO3 (65%, Merck) was added in the water sample to make a ~1% HNO3
21
solution for TIMS measurements. 4 μL river water sample solution was loaded on each
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filament.
23
Hair sample preparation
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300~500 mg hairs from two healthy volunteers in our institute were used in
25
preparation of hair solution samples, respectively. The hairs were firstly washed with
26
distilled water, and then mixed with 5 mL of sub-boiled HNO3, 1 mL of H2O2 and 1 mL
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of HF for microwave digestion. After digestion, the solution was evaporated to dryness.
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The precipitate was finally dissolved in 10 mL 1% HNO3 for TIMS measurements. 2 μL 6 / 31
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hair sample solution was loaded on each filament.
2
Instrumental analysis
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All the TIMS measurements were performed by total evaporation (TE) method using
4
a thermal ionization mass spectrometry with multicollector instrument (Including multi
5
faraday cups and ion-counting collectors). Zone refined rhenium filaments (0.75 mm
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width and 0.035~0.04 mm thick) were purchased from Zhonglai New Material Co.
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(Hunan, China) and degassed before each test. 5~200 pg of uranium were loaded on the
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evaporation filament with the same volume of 1 μL. Analysis was conducted when the
9
pressure is less than 5×10-7 mbar. The loaded samples were heated to approximately 3000
10
mA at the incremental rate of 2000 mA min-1 in current, until the
11
monitored. When 238U signal reached 50 counts per second, the filament temperature was
12
recorded as the ‘initial ionization temperature’, which was monitored with an optical
13
pyrometer. Filament alignment and focusing parameters were optimized before TE
14
measurement. Then, the samples on the evaporation filament were heated to exhaustion
15
with increased filament current to 5300 mA. Data acquisition was performed by
16
recording the
17
classical method, smaller than 400 cycles), each cycle corresponding to ~1 s integration
18
time. The uranium ions of the isotopes
19
multi ion-counting collector array except those noted otherwise. The total ionization
20
efficiency were obtained by calculating the fraction of the U+ ions ionized from the
21
uranium sample atoms loaded on a filament.
234U, 235U, 236U
and
238U
238U
signal could be
signal about a period of 1000 cycles (as for
234U, 235U, 236U
and
238U
were measured with
22
ToF-SIMS was used to characterize the heated uranium-loaded GO-Re filament.
23
Before ToF-SIMS analysis, a degassed single Re filament was loaded with 5 μg GO and
24
1 μg uranium sample GBW04493 sequentially, then resistively heated for 30 sec at about
25
1600 ℃, under the vacuum of below 5×10-7 mbar. ToF-SIMS includes a 25 keV liquid
26
metal ion gun (LMIG) was used for both analysis and sputtering by providing a pulsed
27
(analytical mode) or focused (sputtering mode) beam of primary ions, respectively. A
28
vacuum of 1×10−9 mbar was maintained to prevent surface oxidation during the test.
29
Before the measurement, the filament surface was sputtered in situ to depths between 1 7 / 31
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nm and 20 nm using an Au+ sputter ion beam to remove the oxide layer and obtain a raw
2
surface. Images of the positive ions including Re+, ReC+, U+, UC+ and UC2+ were
3
acquired using 25 kV Au+ ions with currents between 1.5 and 2 pA.
4
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images and energy dispersive X-ray
5
spectrometry (EDX) spectra were obtained using a LEO1530 field emission SEM system
6
(Germany). The transmission electron microscope (TEM) images were obtained with
7
Hitachi model H-800 TEM opened at an accelerating voltage of 100 kV. The IR spectrum
8
(500~4000 cm−1) was measured using a Perkin Elmer Fourier transform infrared
9
spectroscopy spectrometer with pure KBr as the background. Raman spectroscopy was
10
performed on a Renishaw RM2000 microscopic confocal Raman spectrometer
11
(Gloucestershire, United Kingdom) using green (514 nm) laser excitation. Scans were
12
taken on a range of 1000~2000 cm−1. TEM, IR and Raman spectroscopy were all
13
performed in Tsinghua University, Beijing.
14
Results and discussion
15
Filament characterizations
16
Graphene oxide (GO) colloidal solution was prepared by exfoliation of graphite
17
oxide synthesized according to the modified Hummers method.33 From the
18
characterizations of GO in Figure S1 in Supporting Infomation, the GO sheets had sizes
19
from sub-μm to ~40 μm with two-demensional layered structure. IR and Raman spectra
20
identified the degree of oxidation and existence of various oxygen-containing functional
21
groups in GO, such as -OH and -COOH. These groups and the layered structure allowed
22
GO to be well-dispersed in water, resulting in a GO suspension with good colloidal
23
stability.
24
As Scheme 1 shows, firstly, a drop of graphene oxide colloidal solution was carefully
25
pipetted onto the central surface of a pre-degassed single Re filament before uranium
26
sample loading. After resistive heating, the solvent vaporized and GO sheets deposited
27
gradually on the filament surface. From SEM images (Figure 1A, 1B), it is observed that
28
the dry GO layers on the filament possessed approximately uniform morphology over 8 / 31
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large areas with abundant wrinkles on the surface, except that the central zone had a little
2
thick GO deposition. The high dispersibility of GO in solution allowed to produce a more
3
reproducible and homogenous distribution of carbon on the filament, unlike the other
4
carbon additives such as graphite and collodion. The abundant wrinkles on the GO layer
5
surface would ensure the efficient interaction of uranium with GO, promoting the
6
formation of U-carbide. Then, 1 μg uranium sample was loaded on the GO layer via
7
resistive heating. Afterwards, this as-prepared filament was transferred into TIMS turret,
8
and resistively heated for 30 sec at about 1600 ℃ under the vacuum of below 5×10-7
9
mbar. It was proven that under this condition, uranium atoms would be initially ionized
10
(See later discussions). Figure 1C-E shows the SEM and EDX analysis of this shortly
11
heated uranium-loaded GO-Re filament. It was found that most amounts of GO were
12
burn out and some pieces of thin GO layers were remained on the filament surface, by
13
comparing Figure1A, 1B and 1C, 1D. The remaining GO layers still had abundant
14
wrinkles on the surface, suggesting that the high temperature and vacuum would not
15
affect the surface topography of GO. From EDX spectrum in Figure 1E, Re, C, U, and O
16
appeared to be the major elements on the heated filament surface. From EDX spot
17
analysis in Figure S2 in Supporting Infomation, it was observed that the EDX peaks of
18
uranium showed relatively larger intensity at the wrinkles of GO than the flat regions.
19
This result may suggest that the wrinkle structures of GO surface at micro- and
20
nano-level not only increased specific surface area substantially for U-C interaction, but
21
also promoted the absorption and accumulation of uranium on GO surface.
22
To directly demonstrate the formation of Re- and U-carbides during the measurement
23
of uranium using GO loaded Re filament, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry
24
(ToF-SIMS) analysis were performed. An uranium-loaded GO-Re filament were
25
resistively heated for 30 sec at about 1600 ℃, under the vacuum of below 5×10-7 mbar
26
before ToF-SIMS measurements. As previously described, this heating condition was
27
consistent with that during the TIMS measurement, at which the uranium ions were
28
initially emitted with the monitored
29
the images and spectra of Figure 2, the ions ReC+, ReCH+, UC+, UC2+ from the surface of
238U
signal at several thousands of cps. As shown in
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this Re filament were observed, clearly demonstrating the simultaneous formation of Re-
2
and U-carbide species during filament heating, which were proven to have promotion
3
effect on the ionization efficiency of uranium.11-16 From the distribution of the surface
4
signals for these ions, it is found that the Re- and U-carbides were spatially uniformly
5
distributed on the filament surface, which contributed to the stability and precision for
6
uranium analysis. In these characterizations, all filaments had similar physical and
7
chemical properties and behaviours via the same GO carburization strategy, showing
8
excellent reproducibility.
9
Enhancement of uranium ionization efficiency
10
Generally, The background mainly from the intrinsic presence of ultra-trace level of
11
uranium in GO might interfere the measurement. About part-per-million (ppm) level of
12
uranium in GO (1.008 pg μg-1) was evaluated by total evaporation (TE) identical to the
13
sample measurement (Table S1 in Supporting Infomation). By using the washing
14
procedure decribed in the Experiment section, up to 99.8% of the residue uranium was
15
removed, and the background uranium was reduced to ppb level (0.002 pg μg-1).
16
Considering the deposition amount of GO (5μg) on the filament, the absolute background
17
was only about 10 fg of
18
background after GO purification would hardly interfere the isotopic measurement of
19
uranium of pg-level.
238U,
which was comparable to that of ICP-MS.35 Such a
20
Figure 3 shows that, for 5 pg uranium sample loading, GO on single filament
21
exhibited much better performance to generate a stable ion beam at a much higher
22
intensity than the traditional single- and double-filament modes. And GO also showed
23
greater ability to enhance the ionization efficiency compared to equivalent graphite as the
24
ion emitter. A high ionization efficiency of nearly 0.2% was obtained with GO, which
25
was enhanced with two orders of magnitude than the traditional single filament mode and
26
ten times larger than ~0.02% of double filament mode. It was only ~0.03% for uranium
27
ionization with equivalent graphite, illustrating that the nanostructure and larger surface
28
area of GO greatly contribute to the atom ioniztion. Furthermore, the initial ionization
29
temperature had been remarkbly decreased from ~1700 ℃ to ~1420 ℃ with GO, and 10 / 31
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to ~1560 ℃ with equivalent graphite. GO allowed the uranium to generate a stable ion
2
beam much more quickly. This should be attributed to the high work function of the
3
newly formed rhenium-carbon solid solution during continuously heating in the ion
4
source chamber of TIMS.12,13 This result also reveals that GO could interact with Re
5
more sufficiently to form Re-carbide than equivalent graphite, depending on its high
6
dispersibility and specific surface.
7
Optimization of filament carburization
8
In order to achieve the best ionization performance and analytical sensitivity, the
9
loading conditions and mass of GO onto the filament were optimised. It was found that
10
the filament heating current could not be larger than 1.5 A during the loading of GO
11
solution. Larger currents would make the filament in a high temperature and burn out
12
most GO on it rapidly, no matter in air or in a vacuum chamber. The loss of GO before
13
uranium sample loading would decrease the formation of U-carbides, resulting in low
14
ionization efficiencies (Figure S3 in Supporting Infomation). Therefore, 1 A current was
15
used for GO loading, which could vaporize the solvent in GO colloidal solution quickly
16
within 2 min, while avoiding the loss of carbon.
17
The ionization ability is highly dependent on the loading mass of GO. Different
18
amounts of GO from 1 to 40 μg were dropped onto the central surface of filament (2 μL
19
GO solution with different concentrations was loaded each), keeping the cover area of
20
GO layer almost the same, i.e. only layer thickness was different. Figure 4A shows that,
21
the uranium ionization efficiency sharply increased with the loaded GO increasing from 1
22
to 5 μg. This could be attributed to the increasing formation of Re- and U-carbides, which
23
promoted the ion emitting and reduced the loss of atoms during evaporation, respectively.
24
However, the total efficiency gradually decreased from 5 to 40 μg. This result suggests
25
that the overloaded GO would result in a thick carbon layer, hindering the contact of
26
Re-carbide formed at the GO/Re interface with uranium atoms loaded on top layer of GO.
27
The maximum ionization efficiency appeared at GO loading mass of 5 μg. As shown in
28
Figure 4B, as the GO loading mass increased, the initial ionization temperature of
29
uranium gradually increased and then reached a plateau at the GO loading mass of 30 μg. 11 / 31
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1
This is because that the ionization temperature not only depends on the electron work
2
function of the metallic interface, but also on the fomation of U-carbides. The larger
3
amounts of GO would reduce uranium into more U-carbides, which required higher
4
temperature to be thermally evaporated and ionized. From these tests, 5 μg GO was used
5
as the optimal loading quantity for the following experiments.
6
To validate the good reproducibility and reliability of this filament carburization
7
method, independent TIMS measurements of the uranium ionization efficiency were
8
repeated for 50 times with 5 μg GO loaded single Re filaments. The ionization efficiency
9
ranged from 0.13% to 0.25%, with an average value of 0.17% (Figure 4C), which is close
10
to that from benzene vapour carburization method.21-24 The relative standard deviation for
11
ionization efficiency was calculated to be ~15%, which is much better than that from
12
experiments with equivalent graphite (Rel. S.D. ~78%, data from Figure 3B). Figure 4D
13
clearly illustrates that the GO ionization enhancer consistently produced steady uranium
14
ion yields, independent of the sample mass over the loading range from 5 to 200 pg.
15
These results demonstrate the excellent reproducibility and stability of this GO-based
16
filament carburization technique. Compared to the current benzene vapour method,[21]-[24]
17
this GO based technique dramatically simplifies the carburization process and
18
equipments without decreasing the ionization efficiency and reproducibility. All the GO
19
and sample loading procedures could be rapidly completed within 10 min (2 min for GO
20
loading and drying, 5 min for air cooling and 2 min for uranium sample loading and
21
drying).
22
Furthermore, different amounts of Re powders were used to mix with GO solution
23
for filament carburization. As the mass ratio of Re powder and GO was raised, the
24
ionization efficiency increased slightly and then reached a plateau (Figure 5), illustrating
25
that Re powder could promote the formation of Re-carbide in the GO layers, generating
26
better property for ion emitting. It also provides another possibility for further
27
improvement of ionization enhancer, by intergrating other ion emitters with the this
28
porous layered nanomaterial.26-28
29
Isotope measurements of pg-level uranium standards 12 / 31
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Analytical Chemistry
1
This GO carburization method for Re filament was then applied in isotope
2
measurements of some pg-level uranium isotopic certified reference materials. With a
3
multi-collector faraday cup array, the determined n(235U)/n(238U) 0.007285 for 200 pg
4
GBW04483 uranium standard was in agreement with the certified value 0.007264, within
5
the experimental uncertainty (Table 1). The relative uncertainty was obtained as 0.48%,
6
displaying excellent analytical precision for sub-nanogram uranium. As a comparison,
7
double-filament mode was also used to determine the ratio n(235U)/n(238U) of the same
8
200 pg GBW04483 uranium standard. The average ratio n(235U)/n(238U) and relative
9
uncertainty were both obtained to be larger, 0.007366 and 1.14%, respectively, compared
10
to using GO carburized filaments. It evidently shows the promotion effect of filament
11
carburization on analytical precision of isotopes, benefiting from the overall improvement
12
to the ionization efficiency. However, the value of the minor isotope ratio n(234U)/n(238U)
13
could not be accurately determined because the signal of
14
detected by faraday cups. Thus, multiple-ion counting (MIC) array was used for the
15
detection of minor isotope ratios in trace uranium samples.
234U
was too small to be
16
During TE measurements, correction factor (K) for isotopic measurements was
17
determined externally using the GBW04492 isotopic standard in order to correct the
18
isotope ratios, which was affected by the mass fractionation and the efficiency of
19
ion-counting collectors. For each turret, the K-factor for all isotope ratio corrections was
20
calculated using the measured major ratio value n(235U)/n(238U) and its certified value of
21
GBW04492 with the same loading amount of sample (shown in Table S2 and S3). The
22
corrected isotope ratio data for the GBW04493 sample in three separate turrets (6 runs in
23
each turret, totally 18 runs) are shown in Table 2. The resulting ratios from each turret
24
were in excellent agreement with the certified values. Even for 5 pg sample loads, the
25
relative uncertainty for not only the major isotope ratio n(235U)/n(238U), but also the
26
minor ratios n(234U)/n(238U) and n(236U)/n(238U) at 10-4 level, were found to be
27
approximately 1%. As expected, the relative uncertainties were found to increase with
28
decreased uranium amount. As for the GBW04483 sample, whose isotope ratios are close
29
to natural uranium, the MIC data obtained for each isotope ratio were also in agreement 13 / 31
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1
with the certified values within the experimental uncertainties (Table 3). Compared to
2
GBW04493, the relative uncertainties of all ratios were observed slightly larger because
3
the real loaded amounts of 234U and 235U in GBW04483 were much lower (n(234U)/n(238U)
4
is at 10-5 level and n(235U)/n(238U) is at 10-3 level), which was easy to be affected by the
5
background and the ion counter dark noise. Fortunately, even for 5 pg loads, both isotope
6
ratios have relative uncertainties of less than 3%. From these results, the analytical
7
precision for pg-level uranium with GO carburization method is comparable to recently
8
reported TIMS results for trace uranium isotopic analysis,10,21,22,24 displaying great
9
potential for practical applications of single particle analysis for nuclear safeguards.
10
Real sample measurements
11
To initially test the feasibility of this technique for trace uranium isotope
12
measurement in real samples, the uranium isotope ratios of swipe samples, river water
13
samples and human hairs were measured under the same experimental condition as
14
previously described for the pg-level uranium standards. The three swipe samples shown
15
in Table 4 were collected from a worktable in the accident-tolerant fuel (ATF) laboratory
16
of our academy. Based on the
17
evaporation TIMS measurements, the uranium concentration of these swipe samples was
18
estimated to be ~0.8 ppb, while regarding the ionization efficiency as 0.2% (Table S4).
19
Generally, at this low concentration level, the isotope ratios could not be obtained
20
accurately with classical double filament TIMS measurements without any sample
21
enrichment. Table 4 shows the determined isotope ratios of trace uranium in these swipe
22
samples, with the proposed GO carburization method. For all three swipe samples from
23
the worktable, the values of n(234U)/n(238U) and n(235U)/n(238U) were obtained to be close
24
to 0.0004 and 0.05, respectively, while
25
background level) (Table 4). It indicates that low enriched uranium (LEU) had been
26
usually handled in experiments on this worktable. The relative uncertainties were found
27
to be slightly larger (up to 5% for major isotope) than those results in Table 2 and 3
28
because the loaded uranium contained in the real samples were less (~3 pg uranium
29
loaded for each swipe sample, Table S4). As the loaded uranium decreased, the precision
238U
ion counts and isotope ratios obtained in total
236U
could not be detected (i.e. close to
14 / 31
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Analytical Chemistry
1
of isotope detection would be reduced with more effect from uranium background and
2
instrumental dark noise.
3
The environmental water samples were also tested in our method (Table 5). The river
4
water sample was pipetted onto GO-filament surface without any sample enrichment or
5
concentration. As expected, the determined n(234U)/n(238U) and n(235U)/n(238U) are
6
consistent with the values of natural uranium (~0.00005 and ~0.007, respectively). The
7
uranium concentration in the river water was evaluated to be with a mean value of ~0.5
8
ppb (Table S4). Moreover, measurements of hair samples from two workers in our
9
institute were carried out to extend the applications to biological samples (Table 6).
10
Similarly to the river water, the determined values including n(234U)/n(238U) and
11
n(235U)/n(238U) were also close to those of natural uranium. In these isotopic
12
measurements, the GO-based filament carburization technique showed enough accuracy
13
and precision, revealing its great potential for bulk analysis of swipe samples,
14
environmental samples, and biological samples, which is promising to be applied in
15
nuclear forensics.
16
Conclusion
17
In summary, this work reports an initial investigation into the promoting effect on
18
uranium ionization using graphene oxide as the ionization enhancer in TIMS
19
measurements. Profiting from its high specific surface, excellent dispersing property, and
20
layered structure with abundant wrinkles, a high and reproducible ionization efficiency of
21
~0.2% for uranium was achieved in a single-filament mode, which is ten times of the
22
traditional double-filament mode. This ionization capability is comparable to the current
23
benzene vapor carburization technique while the carburization procedures were greatly
24
simplified and the operation time was shortened from several hours to only 10 min. This
25
method was successfully applied in the determination of isotope ratios for uranium
26
isotopic certified reference materials and real samples including swipe samples, water
27
samples and biological samples at pico-gram level. The detection accuracy and precision
28
shows advantage in trace uranium analysis, and could meet the requirement for nuclear 15 / 31
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1
safeguards. The performance of GO ionization enhancer still has potential for further
2
improvement through introducing other ion emitters such as Re powders or platinum
3
particles into the GO layers.
4
Supporting Information
5
The supporting information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website.
6
Supplementary figures (Figure S1-S3) and tables (Table S1-S4).
7
Acknowledgement
8
This work was financially supported by Science Challenge Project (No. TZ201600403),
9
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 21806150, No. 21701152) and TP
10
foundation of Institute of Materials, CAEP (TP02201802). The authors thank Dr. Dezhi
11
Zhang for his help in SEM measurement, and Dr. Wensheng Ren for his help in
12
providing river water and hair samples.
13
Notes
14
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Analytical Chemistry
1
References
2
[1] Burger, S.; Riciputi, L. R.; Bostick, D. A.; Turgeon, S.; McBay, E. H.; Lavelle. M.
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Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2009, 286, 70-82. [2] Aggarwal, S. K.; Alamelu, D.; Khodade, P. S.; Shah, P. M. J. Radioanaly. Nucl. Chem. 2007, 273, 775-778.
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[3] Wallenius, M.; Mayer, K. Fresenius' J. Anal. Chem. 2000, 366, 234-238.
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[4] Delanghe, D.; Bard, E.; Hamelin, B. Mar. Chem. 2002, 80, 79-93.
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[5] Shinonaga, T.; Esaka, F.; Magara, M.; Klose, D.; Donohue, D. Spectrochim. Acta
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Part B 2008, 63, 1324-1328. [6] Saito-Kokubu, Y.; Suzuki, D.; Lee, C. -G.; Inagawa, J.; Magara, M.; Kimura, T. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2012, 310, 52-56.
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[7] Walther, C.; Denecke, M. A. Chem. Rev. 2013, 113, 995-1015.
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[8] Keegan, E.; Kristo, M. J.; Toole, K.; Kips, R.; Young, E. Anal. Chem. 2016, 88,
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1496-1505. [9] Shibahara, Y.; Kubota, T.; Fujii, T.; Fukutani, S.; Takamiya, K.; Konno, M.; Mizuno, S.; Yamana, H. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2017, 54, 158-166. [10]Kraiem, M.; Richter, S.; Erdmann, N.; Kuhn, H.; Hedberg, M.; Aregbe, Y. Anal. Chim. Acta 2012, 748, 37-44. [11]Platzner, I. T. Modern isotope ratio mass spectrometry, vol. 145, John Wiley, Chichester, 1997.
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[12]Pallmer, P. G. Jr.; Gordon, R. L.; Dresser, M. J. J. Appl. Phys. 1980, 51, 3776-3779.
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[13]Kelly, J. M.; Roberson, D. M. Anal. Chem. 1985, 57, 124-130.
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[14]Wayne, D. M.; Hang, W.; McDaniel, D. K.; Fields, R. E.; Rios, E.; Majidi, V. Int. J.
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Mass Spectrom. 2002, 216, 41-57.
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[15]Watrous, M. G.; Delmore, J. E. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2009, 286, 7-10.
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[16]Kraiem, M.; Mayer, K.; Gouder, T.; Seibert, A.; Wiss, T.; Thiele, H.; Hiernaut, J. P.
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Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2010, 289, 108-118. [17]Shinonaga, T.; Esaka, F.; Magara, M.; Klose, D.; Donohue, D. Spectrochim. Acta, Part B 2008, 63, 1324-1328. 17 / 31
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[18]Shinonaga, T.; Donohue, D.; Ciurapinski, A.; Klose, D. Spectrochim. Acta, Part B 2009, 64, 95-98. [19]LaMont, S. P.; Shick, C. R.; Cable-Dunlap, P.; Fauth, D. J.; LaBone, T. R. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2005, 263, 477-481. [20]Kurosaki, H.; Chang, D.; Inn, K. G. W. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2006, 269, 279-281. [21]Kraiem, M.; Richter, S.; Kuhn, H.; Stefaniak, E. A.; Kerckhove, G.; Truyens, J.; Aregbe, Y. Anal. Chem. 2011, 83, 3011-3016. [22]Kraiem, M.; Richter, S.; Kuhn, H.; Aregbe, Y. Anal. Chim. Acta 2011, 688, 1-7. [23]Jakopic, R.; Richter, S.; Kuhn, H.; Aregbe, Y. J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 2010, 25, 815-821. [24]Sturm, M.; Richter, S.; Aregbe, Y.; Wellum, R.; Prohaska, T. Anal. Chem. 2016, 88, 6223-6230.
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[25]Walker, R. L.; Eby, R. E.; Pritchard, C. A.; Carter, J. A. Anal. Lett. 1974, 7, 563-574.
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[26]Watrous, M. G.; Delmore, J. E.; Stone, M. L. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2010, 296,
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21-24. [27]Baruzzinia, M. L.; Hall, H. L.; Watrous, M. G.; Spencera, K. J.; Stanley, F. E. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2017, 412, 8-13. [28]Baruzzinia, M. L.; Hall, H. L.; Watrous, M. G.; Spencera, K. J.; Stanley, F. E. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 2018, 430, 57-62.
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[29]Chen, D.; Feng, H. B.; Li, J. H. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 6027-6053.
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[30]Huang, X.; Qi, X.; Boey, F.; Zhang, H. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 666-686.
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[32]Romanchuk, A. Y.; Slesarev, A. S.; Kalmykov, S. N.; Kosynkinz, D. V.; Tour, J. M.
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Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2013, 15, 2321-2327. [33]Kovtyukhova, N. I.; Ollivier, P. J.; Martin, B. R.; Mallouk, T. E.; Chizhik, S. A.; Buzaneva, E. V.; Gorchinskiy, A. D. Chem. Mater. 1999, 11, 771-778. [34]Pestana, R. C. B.; Sarkis, J. E. S.; Marin, R. C.; Abreu-Junior, C. H.; Carvalho, E. F. U. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2013, 298, 621-625. 18 / 31
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Analytical Chemistry
[35]Zheng, J.; Tagami, K.; Homma-Takeda, S.; Bu, W. J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 2013, 28, 1676-1699.
3 4
Figure Legends
5
Scheme 1 Schematic representation of the filament carburization and sample loading
6
procedures for TIMS isotope ratio measurement of uranium, with graphene oxide (GO) as
7
ionization enhancer. Left: the TIMS and single-filament setups. Right: the filament
8
carburization and sample loading. The use of GO-carburized filaments improved the
9
ionization efficiency for total evaporation TIMS measurements of uranium.
10
Figure 1 Scanning electron microscope images of 5 μg GO-loaded rhenium filament (A)
11
and surface topography of filament-supporting GO layer (B). (C-D) SEM images
12
showing thermal treated uranium-loaded GO-Re filament (C) and topography of the
13
remaining GO (D). (E) EDX spectrum of the indicated area on thermal treated
14
uranium-loaded GO-Re filament (dashed-line box, inset, scale bar: 20 μm). The Re
15
filament was loaded with 5 μg GO and 1 μg uranium sample GBW04483 sequentially,
16
then heated for 30 sec at about 1600 ℃ electrothermally, under the vacuum of below
17
5×10-7 mbar.
18
Figure 2 ToF-SIMS ion images and spectra generated from a heated uranium-loaded
19
GO-Re filament. (A) ToF-SIMS images of (a) overlay, (b) Re+, blue, (c) ReC+, green, (d)
20
U+, yellow, (e) UC+, orange, (f) UC2+, orange. Scale bar: 50 μm. (B) ToF-SIMS spectra
21
of Re and Re related compounds. Ions from ReC are red marked. (C) ToF-SIMS spectra
22
of U and U related compounds. Ions from UC and UC2 compounds are red marked. The
23
Re filament was loaded with 5 μg GO and 1 μg uranium sample GBW04493 sequentially,
24
then resistively heated for 30 sec at about 1600 ℃, under the vacuum of below 5×10-7
25
mbar.
26
Figure 3 (A) The
27
filaments during TIMS measurements of 5 pg uranium sample GBW04483. Each cycle
28
represents an integration time of about 1s. Re(s): single Re filament (black),
238U
count rate versus the cycle number obtained from different
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1
Graphite-Re(s): 5 μg graphite-loaded single Re filament (red), GO-Re(s): 5 μg graphene
2
oxide-loaded single Re filament (blue), Re(d): double Re filament (purple). (B) Total
3
ionization efficiency (red histograms, left y coordinate) and initial ionization temperature
4
(blue circles, right y coordinate) obtained from Re(s), Graphite-Re(s), GO-Re(s) and
5
Re(d) during TIMS measurements of 5 pg uranium sample GBW04483. Error bars are
6
standard deviations from three parallel experiments.
7
Figure 4 (A-B) Total ionization efficiency (A) and initial ionization temperature (B) of
8
100 pg uranium versus GO loading mass on Re filament. (C) Histograms of uranium
9
ionization efficiency. Data were obtained from 50 independent experiments with 5 pg
10
uranium sample. (D) Total ionization efficiency of varied uranium sample loading mass,
11
5, 50, 100, 200 pg. All data were obtained from TIMS measurements of uranium sample
12
GBW04483 with 5 μg GO-loaded filament. Error bars are standard deviations from three
13
parallel experiments.
14
Figure 5 Ionization efficiency versus the mass ratio of Re powder and GO. Different
15
amounts of Re powders were mixed with 2.5 mg mL-1 GO solution. In each test, the
16
loaded Re powder/GO mixture solution contains 5 μg GO.
17 18
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Analytical Chemistry
1
Table 1 Multiple faraday cup collecting measurements of 200 pg loads of GBW04483
2
isotopic standard uranium solution with GO-single Re filaments and double Re filaments,
3
respectively. No.
n(235U)/n(238U) (GO-single
n(235U)/n(238U) (Double Re,
Re, N=6a)
N=6a)
1
0.007287
0.007396
2
0.007274
0.007420
3
0.007269
0.007385
4
0.007241
0.007294
5
0.007293
0.007462
6
0.007273
0.007237
Measured valueb
0.007285
0.007366
Uc (k = 2)
0.000035
0.000084
0.48
1.14
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
4
aN
5
bCorrected
represents number of replicate analyses. relative to a linear regression of multiple measurements of GBW04492.
6 7
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Table 2 Multiple ion counting (MIC) measurements of pg-level loads of GBW04493
5 pg Isotope ratio
n(234U)/n(238U)
Turret 1
Turret 2
Turret 3
Turret 1
Turret 2
Turret 3
1
0.000672
0.000685
0.000684
0.0006868
0.0006794
0.0006880
2
0.000659
0.000688
0.000686
0.0006739
0.0006898
0.0006866
3
0.000678
0.000686
0.000680
0.0006830
0.0006894
0.0006816
4
0.000663
0.000671
0.000673
0.0006710
0.0007060
0.0006988
5
0.000678
0.000708
0.000694
0.0006861
0.0006823
0.0006786
6
0.000689
0.000670
0.000702
0.0006854
0.0006907
0.0006796
Certified value
0.0006889
0.0006889
0.0006889
0.0006889
0.0006889
0.0006889
Uncertainty (k = 2)
0.0000044
0.0000044
0.0000044
0.0000044
0.0000044
0.0000044
Measured value
0.000673
0.000685
0.000686
0.0006810
0.0006896
0.0006855
Uc (k = 2)
0.000011
0.000014
0.000010
0.0000068
0.0000092
0.0000075
1.63
2.04
1.46
1.00
1.33
1.09
1
0.08695
0.08736
0.08897
0.08691
0.08868
0.08988
2
0.08746
0.08894
0.08947
0.08796
0.08912
0.08833
3
0.08854
0.08950
0.08897
0.08760
0.08819
0.08812
4
0.08777
0.08892
0.08765
0.08816
0.08892
0.08916
5
0.08878
0.08914
0.08766
0.08840
0.08806
0.08806
6
0.08856
0.08853
0.09002
0.08790
0.08948
0.08882
Certified value
0.088456
0.088456
0.088456
0.088456
0.088456
0.088456
Uncertainty (k = 2)
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
Measured value
0.08801
0.08873
0.08879
0.08782
0.08874
0.08873
Uc (k = 2)
0.00073
0.00074
0.00096
0.00052
0.00055
0.00071
0.83
0.83
1.08
0.59
0.62
0.80
1
0.000928
0.000933
0.000927
0.000922
0.0009439
0.0009510
2
0.000931
0.000941
0.000965
0.000932
0.0009392
0.0009453
3
0.000917
0.000929
0.000945
0.000926
0.0009328
0.0009307
4
0.000944
0.000959
0.000934
0.000943
0.0009427
0.0009357
5
0.000929
0.000953
0.000936
0.000932
0.0009450
0.0009297
6
0.000944
0.000948
0.000945
0.000950
0.0009561
0.0009452
Certified value
0.0009418
0.0009418
0.0009418
0.0009418
0.0009418
0.0009418
Uncertainty (k = 2)
0.0000062
0.0000062
0.0000062
0.0000062
0.0000062
0.0000062
Measured value
0.000932
0.000944
0.000942
0.000934
0.0009433
0.0009396
Uc (k = 2)
0.000010
0.000012
0.000013
0.000010
0.0000077
0.0000088
1.07
1.27
1.38
1.07
0.82
0.94
b
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
n(235U)/n(238U)
b
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
n(236U)/n(238U)
b
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
2
50 pg
GBW04493 (N=6a)
isotopic standard uranium solutions with GO-Re filaments. 22 / 31
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1 2 3 4
represents number of replicate analyses included in the average ratios shown from each turret. And filaments on three separate turrets were tested. The total replicate number is 6epl18. bCorrected relative to a linear regression of multiple measurements of GBW04492.
5
Table 3 Multiple ion counting (MIC) measurements of pg-level loads of GBW04483
6
isotopic standard uranium solutions with GO-Re filaments.
aN
5 pg Isotope ratio
n(234U)/n(238U)
Turret 1
Turret 2
Turret 3
Turret 1
Turret 2
Turret 3
1
0.0000571
0.0000543
0.0000565
0.00005702
0.00005560
0.00005336
2
0.0000591
0.0000555
0.0000549
0.00005610
0.00005469
0.00005459
3
0.0000553
0.0000565
0.0000547
0.00005594
0.00005406
0.00005488
4
0.0000562
0.0000537
0.0000575
0.00005585
0.00005304
0.00005564
5
0.0000561
0.0000544
0.0000533
0.00005427
0.00005376
0.00005335
6
0.0000556
0.0000558
0.0000543
0.00005504
0.00005339
0.00005429
Certified value
0.0000548
0.0000548
0.0000548
0.0000548
0.0000548
0.0000548
Uncertainty (k = 2)
0.0000022
0.0000022
0.0000022
0.0000022
0.0000022
0.0000022
Measured value
0.0000566
0.0000550
0.0000552
0.00005570
0.00005409
0.00005435
Uc (k = 2)
0.0000014
0.0000011
0.0000016
0.00000094
0.00000093
0.0000090
2.47
2.00
2.90
1.69
1.72
1.66
1
0.00762
0.00737
0.00739
0.007434
0.007126
0.007278
2
0.00757
0.00744
0.00732
0.007309
0.007281
0.007167
3
0.00726
0.00709
0.00723
0.007294
0.007274
0.007351
4
0.00739
0.00724
0.00718
0.007298
0.007216
0.007257
5
0.00730
0.00725
0.00744
0.007333
0.007318
0.007237
6
0.00726
0.00730
0.00727
0.007186
0.007201
0.007276
Certified value
0.007264
0.007264
0.007264
0.007264
0.007264
0.007264
Uncertainty (k = 2)
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
0.000051
Measured value
0.00740
0.00728
0.00730
0.007309
0.007236
0.007261
Uc (k = 2)
0.00016
0.00012
0.00010
0.000079
0.000069
0.000060
2.16
1.65
1.37
1.08
0.95
0.83
b
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
n(235U)/n(238U)
b
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
7 8 9 10
50 pg
GBW04483 (N=6a)
aN
represents number of replicate analyses included in the average ratios shown from each turret. And filaments on three separate turrets were tested. The total replicate number is 6×3=18. bCorrected
relative to a linear regression of multiple measurements of GBW04492.
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1
Table 4 Multiple ion counting (MIC) measurements of swipe samples from a worktable
2
with GO-Re filaments. Swipe 1 (N=3a)
Swipe 2 (N=3a)
Swipe 3 (N=3a)
Mean value
0.000389
0.000375
0.000396
Uc (k = 2)
0.000033
0.000023
0.000012
8.48
6.13
3.03
Mean value
0.0478
0.0484
0.0476
Uc (k = 2)
0.0021
0.0025
0.0010
4.39
5.17
2.10
Isotope ratio
n(234U)/n(238U)
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
n( U)/n( U) 235
238
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
3
aThe
4
Table 5 Multiple ion counting (MIC) measurements of water samples from Fu River with
5
GO-Re filaments.
values are based on data from three separate experiments.
Water 1 (N=3a)
Water 2 (N=3a)
Mean value
0.0000549
0.0000563
Uc (k = 2)
0.0000019
0.0000056
3.46
9.95
Mean value
0.00749
0.00772
Uc (k = 2)
0.00036
0.00041
4.81
5.31
Isotope ratio
n( U)/n( U) 234
238
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
n( U)/n( U) 235
238
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
6
aThe
7
Table 6 Multiple ion counting (MIC) measurements of hair samples from two volunteers
8
with GO-Re filaments.
values are based on data from three separate experiments.
Hair 1 (N=3a)
Hair 2 (N=3a)
Mean value
0.0000644
0.0000581
Uc (k = 2)
0.0000062
0.0000073
9.63
12.56
Mean value
0.00772
0.00751
Uc (k = 2)
0.00057
0.00066
7.43
8.79
Isotope ratio
n(234U)/n(238U)
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
n( U)/n( U) 235
238
Rel. Uc (k = 2) (%)
9
aThe
values are based on data from three separate experiments.
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Scheme 1
2
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Figure 1
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Figure 2
2 3 4
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Figure 3
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2 3 4
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2 3
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