John
". Wotir
Southern Illinois University Carbondale 62901
Higher Education in Chemistry in Some East Asia and Pacific Ocean Countries
The author recently described and appraised higher chemistry education in the USSR ( I ) and in the other East European Socialist countries (2). Since international exchanges of people, educational approaches, and ideas are numerous, additional regional appraisals are worthwhile.' Burma
University education was introduced to Burma in 1878 when Rangoon College was established, with its objective to prepare students for the First examination at Calcutta University. In 1920 the College became Rangoon University which enjoyed a reasonable growth. However, World War I1 closed the University which also suffered from the destruction of facilities and library holdings. With the introduction of a new system of higher education in 1964 it was renamed Rangoon Arts and Science University. The same year saw also the establishment of the second Burmese Arts and Science University in Mandalay. They each enroll about 7,000 students. Considering that Burma has a population of about 30 million, it seems that there are insufficient opportunities for higher education. The Rangoon A & S University has a chemistry staff of 65 which includes the laboratory supervisory personnel. Only ten have the Ph.D. degree, mostly from the USA and UK universities. There is only one professor who is also the Department Chairman. The language of instruction in the MSc. classes is still English. Efforts are now being made to change to Burmese, just as was done in undergraduate classes. Many foreign (mostly American) texts are trauslated into Burmese by the present chemistry staff who also "write" Burmese texts that emphasize applied chemistry, by compiling translations of specific topics from different foreign texts. 'The here described countries were visited in 1974 over a period of six months. One t o four weeks were spent in the countries where the listed institutions were visited: Burma T h e Arts a n d Science Univ. in Rangoon. Indonesia Bandung Technological Institute and National Institute for Research in Bandung; Surahaja Institute of Technology, Widya Mandala and Airlanga Univ. in Surahaja; and Gadjah Mada Univ. in Jogjakarta. T h e Univ. of Indonesia in Djakarta has no chemistry faculty, Philippines De La S a l k College, Univ. of Santo Tomas (The Catholic Univ. of the Philippines) and The Philippine Women's Univ. in Manila; T h e Univ. of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila, and the Philippine Sugar Institute in Quezon City. Thailand Chulalongkorn and Mahidol Univ., the Analytical Chemistry Training Division of the Department of Science, Ministry of Industry in Bangkok; and Chiangmai Univ. in Chiangmai. Malaysia T h e National Univ. of Mslyasia, Univ. of Malaya, Education Development Center of t h e Ministry of Education, T h e Government Department of Chemistry, and Rubber Research Institute in Kuala Lumpur; T h e Agriculture University in Serdang; Univ. Sains Malaysia, and Regional Center for Education in Science and Mathematics in Penang. Singapore Univ. of Singapore, Nanyang Univ. Ministry of Education, Ministry of Science and Technology, Raffles Institution, Singapore Science Center, Chemistry Department of the Republic of Singapore, Institute of Standards and Industrial Research, Singapore Science Council, Singapore National Academy of Science. Hong Kong Univ. of Hong Kong, T h e Chinese Univ. of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Baptist College and Hang Kong Polytechnic. Taiwan National Taiwan. Univ., Chemistry Research Center, Taiwan Normal University, T a m Kang College of Arts and Sciences, (Tamsui Campus), a n d
The Rangoon A & S University Chemistry Department has ~rimitivelaboratories and facilities. Students work in of five even on the most simple experiments. The poor facilities, equipment, supply of chemicals, textbooks, and proper library holdings make university education and research a difficult task. The dedication of some staff and students is admirable hut the odds are against quality education. Indonesia
According to recent statistics Indonesia has a population of about 120 million and 29 state and 22 privately financed universities (3).Only four state supported, and no private, universities have separate chemistry and/or chemical engineering departments. However, chemistry is taught in many universities especially the ones which stress agriculture, education, or the health professions. There is a general agreement that the best chemistry education in Indonesia is found a t the Bandung Technological Institute (ITB). Admission to universities requires end the individual schools. trance examinations ~ r e ~ a r ehv Because of the unreli&leLhigh school education, ITB started matriculation classes in 1973. Students with top scores on the entrance examination now come to Bandung for six months to review high school chemistry, physics, and mathematics. ITB presently awards the "Sarjana" degree which denotes graduation, and may be equivalent to the BSc. with honors. Since 1973 it takes officially only four years to complete the requirements. This change became necessary in order to increase the number of graduates without admitting more applicants and/or making better use of existing facilities. The present ITB degree requirements are not necessarily the National Science Council in Taipei; National Tsing Hua Univ. in Hsinchu: National Chune-Hsine Univ.. and Tunehai Univ. in Taichung; and National Cheng ~ u n g~ n i v .in ~ a i n a n .South Korea Seoul National Univ., Hanyang Univ., Sogang Univ.. Ewha Womans Univ., Korea Institute of Science and Technology, and Korea Advanced Institue of Science in Seoul; Kyungpook National Univ., Yeungnam Univ, in Taegu; and Pusan National Univ., and Dong-A Univ. in Pusan. Japan T h e Univ. of Tokyo, Waseda Univ., Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo Metropolitan Univ., T h e Higher Education and Science Bureau of the Ministry of Edueation, T h e Tokyo Office of the (USA) National Science Foundation, and the United States Educational Commission in Japan in Tokyo; Osaka Univ.; Kyoto Univ.; Nagasaki Univ., and Ehime Univ. in Matsuyama. New Zealand Victoria Univ., Wellington; T h e Univ. of Auekland: the Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton; and Univ. of Canterbury, Christchurch. Australia Maequarie Univ., Univ. of New South Wales in Sydney, N.S.W.; the Australian National Univ., T h e Research School of Chemistry, Canberra College of Advanced Education in Canberrs. A.C.T.: Melbourne Univ.. Monash QE. T h e information and evaluation described in this article were
to all Caucasians from any part of the world. f o r a preliminary interview article see Chem. & Eng. News, 1974, Nov. 1 1 , p. 15 and Nov. 18, p. 36. A more detailed account can be requested from the author.
Volume 53. Number 4. April 1976
/ 21 1
found in other Indonesian universities. They evolved out of the Dutch Ir (Engeneur title) requirements which were modified with the help of Americans who were invited to step into the educational vacuum that was created with the "departure" of the Dutch in the post-World War I1 years. Another recent change was the abolition of the Ph.D. degree studies but ITB will start a MSc. program again in 1976. Besides experimenting with curriculum improvements, I T B also has an UNESCO grant to upgrade high school teachers from all parts of Indonesia. It was estimated that Indonesia requires 4,000 new teachers per year for the next five years. The main difficulty of Indonesian education can he traced to low financing. State supported universities receive 90% of their funds from the government. Five universities, Airlanga, ITB, Gadjah Mada, University of Indonesia, and Bogor Agriculture University (not visited), were designated as "Centers of Excellence" and receive a higher lever of government support. However, relatively little monev ia allocated for libraries, for the erection and maintainance of laboratories, and other physical facilities. It is not unusual to find water andlor gas lines (when they exist) inoperative. Students seem to he better versed in theory than laboratory or shop practice. Faculty salaries are very low compared to salaries of people in commerce, business, industry, or even in the military or police. Some faculty hold two or three additional jobs and have other members of the family working in order to survive. Many professors teach in the morning in a government supported university and in the afternoon in a local private school. In spite of higher tuition, private schools are seldom able to provide laboratory facilities. Graduates from private universities have to be certified by the government through a system of examinations and laboratory work, given a t irregular intervals. It is not unusual that only 4% of students pass the tests. The state thus regulates the number of job applicants. The language of instruction is Indonesian but many American hooks are used without translation. Students may he able to read but have difficulties in understanding spoken English. Most of the faculty understands, but few can speak, English. Philippines
The Phili~nines . . have about 40 million inhabitants. 39 universities and 16 colleges, most of them located in and around Manila (4). Only four universities are government financed. Some of the private universities have very large enrollments, e.g., Far Eastern University in Manila has over 50 thousand students, whereas the largest government supported University of the Philippines (UP), has only 20 thousand students. Only a few of the private schools have separate chemistry departments and a staff worthy of consideration. In some respects higher education in the Philippines resembles that in the USA inasmuch that it lacks rigid guidelines. Public schools provide only ten years to pre-university edocation, hut, many private schools educate for 11 years, and 17 is the average age of first year college students. The high schools teach little algebra or trigonometry, and no calculus. Entrance to a university usually requires entrance examinations that each school individually prepares and administers. Because of the lack of mace. the entrance examination a t U P selects only the top'2,000 students annually out of the 12.000 ao~licants.and onlv 3046 (30 to 401year) of the entering &dents earn the B.< in chemistry degree. All universities charge tuition. English is the medium of instruction and Spanish is taught as a foreign language. Very few universities have a substantial number of facult y who earned the Ph.D. degree. The employ of part-time faculty is common especially in the less prestigeous schools. 212 / Journal of Chemical Education
Since no Philippine university bas a Ph.D. program in chemistry2 such degrees were earned mostly in American universities. Many of the locally awarded M S . degrees do not require laboratory research since modern research facilities are scarce. Ateneo de Manila nrovides ~ r o b a h l vthe best undererad" uate instruction in the Philippines and students are recruited from all parts of the country. It has relatively well equipped laboratories for undergraduate and M S . work, and a . ~ r o.o e r.l xeducated facultv. This mav he due in Dart to a dedicated and hardworking chairman who also inspired many of his students. They in turn received Ph.D. education in the USA and are now the nucleus of the improved chemistry education in other Philippine universities (e.g. De La Salle). Thailand
Higher education in Thailand (population 39 million) is flexible even though it is mostly in the hands of the government which operates 8 universities and 21 colleges and institutes ( 5 ) . Chemistry and/or chemical technology is taught only a t Chulalongkorn (CLU), Mahidol (MU), Chiangmai (CGU), Khonkaen, and Prince Songla Universities. The last three are less than ten years old. The oldest (f. 1918) and largest (10,000 students) university in Thailand is CLU. It offers a four-year BSc., and since 1961 two-year MSc. programs. Chiangmai started in 1964 and received assistance from foreign countries, e.g. the Colombo Plan, British Council, and USA and Canadian Peace Corps workers. T o set some national standards, admission to all Thailand universities is by a common entrance examination after the 12th year of schooling. More women than men qualify. Because of its location, CGU also sets aside a special quota for outstanding students from the Northern provinces where the high school education is below the Bangkok quality. However, CGU seems to have a relativelv hetter balanced chemistrv facultv than the Banekok universities. To date. Ph.D. edocation exists onlv in the life science '(e.g. biochkmistry) departments a t MG and the chemistry department will offer it in organic chemistry in 1975. MU (4,000 students) evolved from the University of Medical Sciences in 1969. Only four of the 15 senior lecturers are not organic chemists by education. Since there are no analytical chemists such courses are taught by temporary, part-time, or less professionally qualified instructors. The upper ranks contain mostly foreign Ph.D.-educated young, and, for Thailand, aggressive individuals. The financial support of MU seems to be better than any other Thailand University. The language of instruction in the first two years in all universities is Thai, but English textbooks (mostly USA, Asian, or pirated editions) are used since all students are supposed to have a reading knowledge by that time. English andlor Thai is used in the third and fourth year of instruction and is used exclusively in graduate courses. Eventually all education is to he in Thai. Malaysia
Higher chemistry education in Malaysia is relatively new, good, and generally acknowledged as being well financed. The oldest and best established institution is the University of Malaya (UM) where instruction began in 1957 as the second site of what is now known as the University of Singapore. Institutional independence was achieved in 1962 although Singapore did not leave the Federation of Malaya till 1965. The present enrollment is ahout 8,000. ?3ome universities award doctorates in chemistry which should be considered "honorary" degrees, sometimes based on some special research. They should not be confused with earned Ph.D. degree customary in the USA.
Chemistrv is taught in the d e ~ a r t m e n t sof chemistrv. .. hiochemistr;, chemical engineering, and chemical technology. All hut one of the 28 senior chemistry staff have a foreign Ph.D. degree. Most of the faculty are of Chinese ethnic origin3 and this poses a problem in the Dresent government's program to implement the ~ a t i o n a l ducat ion system which also emphasizes the use of the Malay language as the main medium-of instruction. Although the language of instruction is still English, Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) is now introduced in the first year. I t is anticipated that the English proficiency among the Malaysian students which used to he outstanding, will decline, hut hopefully the standards of education will remain the same. The well designed and equipped UM chemistry lahoratories (many of them air-conditioned), good library facilities, and research-oriented faculty contribute to the generalization that the best chemistry education in Southeast Asia is found at UM. High academic standards are assured by rigid entrance examinations and the Cambridge School Certificate is used. The general approach to education is typical British. The MSc. and Ph.D. degrees are also awarded hut presently there are only a few graduate students. The National University (NUM) was established in 1970 to accommodate the increasing demand for higher education for the Bumiputras (the indigenous people or the "sons of the soil"). The native Malay (Bahasa) is the language of instruction and the objectives of education are more closely directed to the needs of this rapidly evolving country. Since the Malaysian language lacks sophistication in the scientific fields, NUM established a Committee of Terminologies of Science which creates words to he approved by the Language and Literary Agency. New words are tested in lectures at NUM before being put to use throughout the country. Because of the similarities of the language, Malaysia and Indonesia are jointly involved in a regional cooperation to standardize the spelling and terminologies. These two countries, which were a t war with each other till 1966, now also cooperate in an exchange of university instructors. The National University is building an impressive permanent campus in Bangi, about 20 miles south of Kuala Lumpur. Presently temporary quarters a r e used, and chemistry lectures are held in a former teacher's college. Laboratories are located in the former Muslim Colleee. .. . two miles removed, where considerabl~and expensive remodeline.was com~leted.The air-condirioned lnt,orarories contain most of the major and expensive instruments selected with the emphasis on teaching modern chemistry, rather than research. Communication between the two campuses is by shuttle bus which crosses the UM campus. However, the staff at UM and NUM seem to be oblivious of each other's resources and problems. The University Sains Malaysia (USM, Science University) was established in 1969 on the island state of Penang. I t is a National University that does not follow the traditional organization. Curricula favor interdisciplinary education, and attempt to give a broad base to students. Courses help to overcome the shortage of science secondary school teachers in Malaysia. The university also offers MSc. and Ph.D. degrees. Chemistry is taught in the School of Chemical Sciences headed hv a Dean. It has all the modern teachine" and research instrumentation located in air-conditioned and dehumidified laboratories. Students are encouraged to learn the operation and limitations of the instruments. All of the 32 senior instructional staff in chemistrv have the Ph.D. degree. The relativelv affluent USM uermits its School of Chemistry to maintain high standard; by engaging three external examiners simultaneously. They are appointed for a period of three years, and are required to visit the university a t least once, preferably at the time of examinations. They
help to ensure that the standards set by the internal examiners are similar to other universities of international standing, and to see that there is uniformity of decisions by the internal examiners. Presently half of the USM teaching staff is foreign and the language of instruction is still mostly English. Singapore
With a population of 2.2 million living in 225 square miles, the Republic of Singapore is one of the world's smallest nations (8).Although primary education is free, it is not compulsory, hut there is 100% attendance. Good financial support and high standards are characteristics of Singapore education. The standard of living is second only to Japan in Asia. Higher education came to Singapore. in the form of a medical college (f. 1905) and Raffles College (f. 1929). The two were amalgamated to create the University of Malaya in 1949, which in 1957 also established a campus in Kuala Lumpur. Complete separation was accomplished in 1962 when the University of Singapore (SU) was established. Presently it has 5,500 students in seven Faculties. Admission requirements call for the Cambridee General Certificate of Education, "A" Level. The minimum score on this examination is h i ~ h e ra t SU than in manv British schools that use the sameexamination. The University uses English for instruction and the British system of education mostly without tutorials. All of the 22 chemistry staff have their Ph.D. degree earned in a foreign university. About half of the undergraduates go into an applied chemistry stream in the second year. Jobs are easier to find with such a background, The university also offers the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees, hut there are only a few students. Most of the department is housed in a high-rise building spread over several floors. The library facilities are good hut expensive electronic spectrometers (e.g., nmr) are missing or need better servicing. More than 75% of the Singapore population are of Chinese ethnic origin. Since many had difficulty entering the then University of Malaya where the medium of instruction was English, Chinese citizens in Singapore and throughout Southeast Asia collected funds for a nrivste -~~~ ~ h i n e i euniversity. Nanyang University (NU) was founded in 1953 and started instructions alone American lines in 1956. In 1964, in order for NU to receive funds on the same basis as SU and have its deerees recoenized. NU was upgraded. I t is now like SU b;t still uses t h e ' ~ m e r i c a n credithour system. A M.Sc. . Droeram - was initiated in 1972. In chemistry there are major electronic spectrometers, including nmr. Eleven of the 14 all-Ph.D. chemistry faculty received their first degree a t NU. The Ph.D. degrees were earned mostly in foreign universities. As a group they are young and well motivated to provide quality instruction and research. English and Chinese are used in science courses a t the discretion and preference of individual instructors. SU and NU use foreign external examiners. ~
~
.~
Hong .Kong -
University of Hong Kong (UHK) is the oldest university in the dependent territories of the British Commonwealth. It was fo"nded in 1911. Presently it derives 75% of its income from the government, 15% from endowments, and only about 10% from fees. I t operates on the traditional pattern of the English Civic University. English is the only medium of instruction outside of language subjects. Thirteen years of pre-university schooling, which includes 2 to 3 years of chemistry, and passing the Advanced Level Examination are required for admission to UHK. Only 40% of the students who qualify for admission are actually admit3The present population is about 11 million comprising rnostiy of Malay (50%).The Chinese (35%)and Indian (9%) comprise the merchant, business and middle class (6,7). Volume 53,Number 4. April 1976 / 213
ted. The chemistry department has relatively large Master of Philosophy and Ph.D. programs. The department is well equipped with the necessary instruments for instruction and research. All hut one of the thirteen senior chemistrv instructors have the Ph.D. degree. Whereas the chemistrv staff a t UHK received their Ph.1). degree5 exclusively at IJK and Canadian 1:niversiries the 16 seniw insrrurtors n t the Chinese llniversity of Hone Kong (CUHK) have a more diverse educational hack: ground, although many received their first degree a t CUHK. The American educational influence a t CUHK is responsible for the four-year long curriculum leading to a BSc. degree, and the use of American textbooks in undergraduate courses. The American sequence of subject matter, starting with general chemistry, is followed. The CUHK began in 1963 when three existing colleges (New Asia. Chune Chi. and United) were amaleamated. In the early days they had many instrictow and scudents who mierated to HK from mainland China. Now the colleees " are located in a spectacular new campus near Shatin in the New Territories. Althoueh the Universitv's Foundation Colleges still conduct their own undergraduate teaching in some subjects, chemistry and all upper level and Master courses are offered on an intercollegiate basis. Ph.D. work is not authorized. The instruction in the sciences is in English, in the early years, and may use Chinese later on, a t the discretion of individual instructors. Students seem to have no difficulties reading and understanding English, hut are reluctant and/or unable to speak it. The chemistry lahoratories a t CUHK are in ;modern Science Center equipped with most of the desirable electronic instruments. The new Universitv Lihrarv is one of the most modern academic libraries in
