Homogeneous Catalysis

10 Chelate Complexes of Iridium

Downloaded by UCSF LIB CKM RSCS MGMT on November 18, 2014 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1974 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1968-0070.ch010

T h e i r Chemistry and Use in Catalysis KEITH A. TAYLOR Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., Petrochemical & Polymer Laboratory, P. O. Box No. 11, The Heath, Runcorn, Cheshire, England

The d complexes exist mainly as four- or five-coordinate compounds. They form 1:1 adducts with donor ligands and react with RX molecules to form six-coordinate products containing R and X as separate ligands. These properties play a key role in homogeneous catalysis by such complexes. Trans-IrX(CO)(PPh ) reacts with chelating ligands containing phosphorus and sulfur donor atoms to give IrX(CO)(chelate) or IrX(chelate) . Small changes in the ligand cause large changes in the lability of the CO ligand. Some of the products react with hydrogen and will catalyze the hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes. Analogous reactions with rhodium complexes yield different products and properties. 8

3 2

2

2

The d configuration holds a special place in the field of organometallic chemistry. From an inorganic chemists point of view it encompasses a wide range of stereochemical behavior, and coordination numbers of four, five, and six are common (17, 34, 37). B y comparison, almost the whole of the chemistry involving d , d , and d complexes is that of octahedral stereochemistry (35). In catalysis many of the more important reactions almost certainly involve complexes of the d configuration. The "oxo" process for hydroformylation of olefins (2,43), the Hoechst-Wacker oxidation of ethylene (23, 41), the hydrosilation (4, 18, 38), isomeriza tion (3, 10, 19, 32, 42), hydrogénation (9, 13, 14, 15, 22, 49, 52) and oligomerization (8, 51) of olefins are common examples. The two ob servations are undoubtedly related, and from mechanistic schemes ad vanced for some of these catalytic reactions it is clear that the multitude of stereochemical possibilities plays a key role. The proposed initial step 8

5

6

1

8

195 In Homogeneous Catalysis; Luberoff, B.; Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1974.

196

HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS

in the hydroformylation reaction is loss of carbon monoxide from the catalyst as in Reaction 1: HCo(CO) ^ HCo(CO) + CO 4

(1)

3

This provides a route for entry of the olefin molecule to the active site. In fact the ability of square-planar d systems to take on more ligands seems to dominate much of their chemistry. The best known example of this is the reversible addition of 0 and S 0 to Jrans-IrCl ( C O ) ( P P h ) (44). d Square planar substitution reactions, particularly for P t ( I I ) , are thought to be associative in character with formation of five-coordi nate intermediates. These intermediates probably have trigonal bipyramidal structures, particularly where they contain ττ-acceptor ligands (24). Examples are also known where two ligands are introduced. This usually results in formal oxidation of the metal as in the reaction between M ( I ) ( M = Ir, Rh) and various R X molecules to give M (III) ( M = Ir, Rh) complexes with R~ and X ' as ligands. Examples of R X include H , (45, 47), hydrogen halides (48), alkyl and allyl halides (20), and silanes (4). A kinetic study of this type of reaction has recently been reported (6). The reaction probably occurs in Rh(I)-catalyzed olefin dimerization (8) and hydrogénation reactions (22, 52) and R h ( I ) - and Pt(II)-catalyzed hydrosilation of olefins (4), where the proposed initial steps involve addition of H C l , H , and R S i H to the catalyst, respectively. 8

2

2

3

2


8

2

2

3

The work described here is an attempt to determine the factors which are important in controlling stereochemistry, chemistry, and use as catalysts of d complexes. These complexes are known for oxidation states 2 — to 3, the range of metals covering chromium to gold (37). Table I gives the preferred coordination number, with other less common s

Table I.

Coordination Numbers for d Complexes s

2-

1-

0

I

2

3

Cr5 Mo5 W5

Mn5 Tc5 Re5

Fe5 Ru5 Os5

Co5 Rh4,5 Ir4,5

Ni4(5)(6) Pd4(5)(6) Pt4(5)(6)

Au4(5)

ones in parentheses, for metals in these groups. It is immediately clear that there is a change from five coordination for low oxidation states to four coordination in higher oxidation states. This has been related to the separation of the (n — l)d and np orbitals of the metal ion. The smaller this difference, the easier it is to hybridize all the np orbitals to form dsp hybrids which give the trigonal bipyramidal stereochemistry (36). The d-p separation increases with increasing formal charge on the metal— i.e., with increasing oxidation state. For the low oxidation states, 2-, 1-, 0, the majority of the d complexes are of the [ M ( C O ) ] ~ (n = 2, 1, 0) 3

8

5

n

In Homogeneous Catalysis; Luberoff, B.; Advances in Chemistry; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1974.

10.

Complexes of Iridium

TAYLOR

197

Br Ρ


Ρ

Ρ'

Br Ρ = 2-PHENYLISOPHOSPHINDOLINE Figure 1.

Structure of PdBr (2-phenylisophosphindoline) 2

3

type or substituted derivatives (34). The stereochemistry is most likely trigonal bipyramidal as proved conclusively for F e ( C O ) - , (12). At the other extreme, four coordination with square-planar stereochemistry is common with ( P R ) M X ( M = N i , P d , Pt; X = halogen, pseudohalogen, hydride) and ( P R ) A u X as typical examples. Where five coordination does occur for these metals, the structure can be either trigonal bipyramid or tetragonal pyramid. Thus, for monodentate ligands as in the [ P t ( S n C l ) ] " ion the arrangement is trigonal bipyramidal (11). By comparison the red isomer of PdBr (2-phenylisophosphindoline) , shown in Figure 1, has a structure closely approximating a tetragonal pyramid (7). Complexes containing multidentate ligands behave similarly. N i B r (triars), where triars = C H A s [ C H C H C H A s ( C H ) ] has a structure similar to the P d ( I I ) (26) complex above (Figure 2). In each case the bromine atom is below the tetragonal plane, and this M — B r bond is considerably shorter than the axial one. The tetradentate ligand Q A S : 3

3

3

r)

2

2

3

3

2

3

2

3

2

2

2

3

2

2

where Q A S = As

has the correct geometry for occupying three equatorial and one axial position of a trigonal bipyramid and complexes containing this ligand are expected to have this stereochemistry. [ P t l ( Q A S ) ] B P h is a good example where the iodine atom occupies the remaining axial position (27). Between these extremes of largely five or largely four coordination is the cobalt, rhodium, iridium group of metals. The 1 oxidation state is not the most stable for these metals, and only in the last five years have 4

+


198



Br

2 Figure 2.

2

Structure of NiBr [Ctf ^ { C t f C H C t f ,gA ( P P h ) has been reported (35). In addition the monohydrido, I r H ( C O ) ( P P h ) , ( I ) and monocarboalkoxy, I r ( C 0 R ) ( C O ) ( P P h ) (29), analogs of Vaska's compound are five-coordinate, as are many cationic species such as [ I r ( C O ) ( P P h ) 5 x ] (29). This group thus appeared the most attractive for studying d behavior in all its facets. r )

+

+

4

3

2

L

2

3

2

3

3

3

2

2

2

x

+

3

8

More specifically Ir(I) was chosen as a model element from this group since it was expected that the complexes would be more stable, even though this may be a big disadvantage when studying catalytic processes. Hydrogénation was chosen as the reaction for study because of its wide occurrence among d complexes. F e ( C O ) has been used for hydrogenating activated double bonds, particularly for conjugated dienes and trienes (13). H C o ( C O ) catalyzes the hydrogénation of various materials including α,β-unsaturated ketones, acrylonitrile, and aldehydes (14, 15). More recently reports of using R h C l ( P P h ) (22, 52), transI r C l ( C O ) ( P P h ) (49), and I r H ( C O ) ( P P h ) (46) as catalysts in alkene and alkyne hydrogénation have appeared. P t ( I I ) with S n C l " 8

5

4

3

3

2

3

3

3

3


2

10.

TAYLOR

199


ligands is also active (9). It is clear that many d systems catalyze hydrogénation reactions including M ( I ) , where M = C o , R h , Ir, and this reaction should be a good yardstick for catalytic activity. 8


Ir(I)

Chelate Complexes

There is rapid exchange of the ligands in R h ( I ) and I r ( I ) square planar complexes (16). This observation has been used to prepare a range of Ir(I) complexes with bidentate ligands. The starting materials are trans-IrX(CO) ( P P h ) where X = halogen. If these are treated with an excess of another phosphine, such as P P h E t or P P h E t , a virtually quantitative replacement of P P h takes place. N o change in stereochem istry occurs, and trans isomers are obtained. If a bidentate phosphine is used, some change in stereochemistry must occur because of the steric requirements of the ligand. The compound I r X ( C O ) ( c h e l a t e ) has not been isolated in any case examined. The most common behavior has been the replacement of two monodentate phosphines by two bidentate phosphines accompanied by loss of one or both of the C O and X " ligands from the inner coordination shell. The reaction also occurs with bidentate ligands containing only one phosphorus atom but has not been observed with those containing none. In addition the nature of the phosphine in the starting material is of little importance, and both P P h E t and P P h E t have been used successfully in place of P P h . 3

2

2

2

3

2

2

3

Four bidentate ligands have been studied, and two types of products were obtained: I r X ( C O ) ( c h e l a t e ) and IrX(chelate) . The particular product obtained for each ligand is given in Table II. 2

Table II. Ligand Ph PCH CHoPPh Ph PCH PPh.> Ph PCH.,CHoSPh PhSCHoCHoSPh 2

2

2

2

Chelate Complexes

IrX(COXchehte) a a b b

lrX(chelate) a b a b

2

2

2

Symbols: a =

Ir(I)

2

2

isolated; b = not isolated

P h P C H C H P P h . For P h P C H C H P P h two products are ob tained. If the reaction is carried out in tetrahydrofuran or benzene solu tions at reflux temperatures, an orange solid forms slowly. This has been identified as [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] X where X = CI", Br", B P h " , the latter being prepared from the halide by reaction with N a B P h in acetone solution. The compounds have no v _ frequency in the infrared, have a conductivity typical of 1:1 electrolytes, show sharp peaks in the proton N M R , characteristic of phenyl and methylene protons in the ratio 5:1, and have the correct elemental analysis. A t room temperature, preferably 2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

4

4

c

0


200


in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide, a different yellow crystalline product is obtained. This is [ I r ( C O ) ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] X where X = CI", Br", C10 ", the last compound being prepared by metathetical displacement using N a C 1 0 . The complexes are again 1:1 electrolytes but now have a v _ stretching frequency in the infrared at 1931 cm." . This is lower than in the parent I r X ( C O ) ( P R ) complexes (1940-1960 cm." ). The C O ligand in this complex is very labile. In chloroform solution the C O can be removed rapidly by passing nitrogen through the solution. This reaction can be reversed by passing C O gas into the solu tion when the yellow color of the CO-adduct is rapidly regenerated. In addition the electronic spectrum of the adduct contains bands typical of [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] if the solution is not saturated with C O . These observations are consistent with a rapid equilibrium as in Reaction 2. 2

2

2

2

2

4

4

c

1

0

3

2


1

2

2

2

2

+

2

[ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ^ ] + C O ^± [Ir(CO) ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] 2

2

2

+

2

2

2

2

2

2

+

(2)

This system is an example of Ir ( I ) occurring in closely related forms with coordination numbers four and five. In addition to the reaction with C O the four-coordinate complex reacts with hydrogen gas at room temperature either as a solid or in chloroform solution to give [ I r H ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] X . This reaction is irreversible at room temperature and differs in this respect from the C O reaction. The complex is a 1:1 electrolyte and has typical infrared bands at 2060 c m . ( v . ) and 845 c m . ( δ . ) . The proton N M R spectrum suggests a cis arrangement of the two hydride ligands. In addition to the phenyl and methylene protons, there is a 1:1 doublet, (Jp-ff = 113 c.p.s.) of 1:3:3:1 quartets (J .H = 16 c.p.s.) centered at r 21.6. The interpretation of this spectrum is that the equivalent protons are split by one irans-phosphorus ( } . = 113 c.p.s.) and three cisphosphorus atoms (Ji>. = 16 c.p.s.). These coupling constants are similar to those found in isomers of IrH„Cl . „ ( C O ) ( P P h E t ) where constants of 12-16 c.p.s. are found for cis-phosphorus and between 80-150 c.p.s. for frans-phosphorus (5). The appearance of only one vir-u is unusual for a cis-lrH grouping. Sacco has in fact shown that the cobalt analog d 5 - [ C o H ( P h P C H C H P P h > ) ] has two bands at 1940 and 1985 cm." (40). However, it is possible that with the much heavier metal atom—iridium—the separation between symmetric and asymmetric stretching frequencies, which is expected to be smaller than for cobalt, has virtually vanished. The N M R evidence is definitely against a trans configuration. 2

1

Ir

2

2

2

1

H

2

ΐ Γ

2

Η

P

P

H

H

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

L

2

+

1

Other physical measurements which support the assignments for the parent ion and its C O adduct include ultraviolet, P N M R , and x-ray structure on the C O adduct. 3 1


10.

TAYLOR


201

In the P N M R both [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] and [ I r ( C O ) ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] show single resonances at —50 and —25 p.p.m. with respect to H P 0 . This suggests an equivalence of all the phos phorus atoms for both cations. This result differs from that found in the solid state (see foter) and probably indicates rapid equilibration in solution. The electronic spectrum of the starting materials, [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] and its C O adduct are given in Table III. 3 1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

+

+

2

3

4

2

2

2

2

Table III. Downloaded by UCSF LIB CKM RSCS MGMT on November 18, 2014 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1974 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1968-0070.ch010

2

+

Electronic Spectra of Ir(I)

Compound

Bands in the Visible Region

irafw-IrCl(CO)(PPh,) frans-IrCl(CO)(PPh Et) trans-lrCl(CO) (PPhEt ) trarw-IrBr(CO)(PPh0 [Ir (PhoPCH CH PPh ) o] CI [Ir(CO) (Ph PCH>CHoPPh ) ]BPh

440 436 434 445 526

2

2

2

2 2

2

2

Complexes

2

2

2

2 2

4

388 340 275sh 385 334 265sh 379 332 270sh 392 344 280sh 443 382 318 no peaks in visible region

A l l four-coordinate complexes have four d-d bands presumably arising from transitions from the largely non-bonding ds, d , d , d orbitals to the anti-bonding d . orbital. This technique may provide a general method for distinguishing between four and five coordination for Ir(I) complexes. The preliminary results of an x-ray structural determination of [ I r ( C O ) ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] C l are given in Figure 3. The structure is unusual in that it is not like any known five-coordinate d complex. It can be considered as a distorted form of either a trigonal bipyramid or a tetragonal pyramid. xy

2

x

2

2

2

2

2

y

2

8

Ρ—Ρ Figure 3.

-

Ph PCH CH PPh 2

Structure of

2

2

2

[Ir(COXPh PCH CH PPh ) ]Cl 2

g

2

2 g


xz

yz

202



In the former the unusual feature is that the C O ligand is unsymmetrically placed in the trigonal plane. Based on a distorted tetragonal pyramid the oddity is that C O and the rrarw-phosphorus are both 18-19° out of plane. This type of effect has already been mentioned for fivecoordinate P d ( I I ) and N i (II) complexes, but in these cases only one of the planar groups is bent out of the plane. In this compound the nearest chlorine atom is at 9.6A. There is, however, a hydrogen atom from one of the phenyl rings in the vicinity of the "hole" which may cause the asymmetry of C O in the trigonal structure. The full structural analysis will be published shortly. It is of course quite possible that there is a relationship between the unusual chemistry and the structure of this compound. P h P C H P P h . A different picture emerges when P h P C H P P h is used as the bidentate ligand. Reaction between this and f r a n s - I r X ( C O ) ( P R ) at room temperature gives a C O adduct, [ I r ( C O ) ( P h P C H P P h ) ] X . The complexes with X = Br", C 1 0 " have been characterized. The compounds are diamagnetic, 1:1 electrolytes, and have v = in the infrared at 1924 cm." . This suggests an I r — C bond strength similar to that in the P h P C H C H P P h analog. Experiments at higher temperatures or passing nitrogen through a chloroform solution however have failed to yield the "parent" molecule. A red color has been observed in the higher temperature experiments but has not persisted in attempts to isolate a compound from such solutions. The C O adduct can be recovered, from solutions which have had nitrogen bubbled through them. It appears then that the C O ligand is much less labile in this complex than in its P h P C H C H P P h analog. The reasons for this are not clear, and only an x-ray structure, which is in progress at the moment, may give some clues. Possibilities include a lower stability of the parent compound or a different stereochemistry caused by the smaller "span" of the P h P C H P P h ligand. What is clear is that a relatively small change in ligand has caused a large change in the stability of the complex. 2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

4

c

0

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

P h P C H C H S P h . Another effect is observed when P h P C H C H S P h is used as the bidentate ligand. In the room-temperature reaction the isolated product is I r X ( P h P C H C H S P h ) where X = Br". The small conductivity of a nitrobenzene solution suggests only partial ionization of the bromide, and the color and solubility characteristics are not like those of the ionic compounds [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] X . It has proved impossible to prepare the C O adduct by reaction with C O , again sug gesting that the parent may be a five-coordinate neutral molecule. In addition there is no reaction with H at atmospheric pressure. 2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

In summary it can be said that by slight variations in the chelate ligand we can vary the relative stabilities of IrX( chelate ) and 2


10

TAYLOR


203

I r X ( C O ) ( c h e l a t e ) 2 from the formers being most stable, through an equilibrium system to the latter s being most stable. R h ( I ) Analogs. Some comparison with similar R h ( I ) chemistry can be made. i r a n s - R h C l ( C O ) ( P P h ) reacts with Q A S at room temperature to give a C O adduct [ R h ( C O ) ( Q A S ) ] C I (33). If this reaction is carried out in boiling chlorobenzene, R h ( Q A S ) C l is formed, but this compound is a nonelectrolyte and differs from [ M ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] C l where M = R h and Ir, which are both 1:1 electrolytes. No report is made of the possibility of interconversion of [ R h ( C O ) Q A S ] C l and R h ( Q A S ) C l using methods mentioned earlier. [ R h ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] C l is the product of reaction of trans-RhC\( C O ) ( P P h ) and P h P C H C H P P h even in the presence of C O gas. Preliminary experiments with P h P C H P P h show that the product contains only one chelate ligand per R h atom. Thus, for both bidentate phosphines rhodium behaves differently from iridium. This difference is also found in reactions with H when [ R h ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] X does not give an adduct. 3

2


2

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Hydrogénation

2

2

2

Reactions

Some of the compounds which have been described were tested for activity as hydrogénation catalysts in homogeneous liquid phase experi ments. Under the correct conditions activity is observed. These condi tions are more vigorous than required for other I r ( I ) complexes such as frarw-IrCl(CO)(PPh ) (49) and I r H ( C O ) ( P P h ) (46) and for R h C l ( P P h ) (22, 52). None of the systems involving I r ( I ) and biden tate ligands shows appreciable activity at atmospheric pressure i n refluxing mixtures of oct-l-ene and toluene. B y comparison [ R h ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] C l shows small activity under these conditions. However, when the temperature and pressure are increased, typically to 1 5 0 ° 175°C. and 1200-1400 p.s.i.g. of H both alk-l-ynes and alk-l-enes can be hydrogenated. 3

3

2

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

Table I V .

Hydrogénation Experiments _ C Fraction, % C Fraction, % Temp., °C. hexane hexene hexyne octane octene 6

Catalyst, mg. [Ir(Ph PCH,CH PPho) ]Cl (1.0) [Ir(CO)(Ph PCHoPPh ) ]Cl (1.0) IrBr(Ph PCHXH SPh)., (0.5) 2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

8

175

16

36

48

20

80

150

29

39

32

36

64

175

2

38

60

5

95

A standard experiment was done using glass-lined autoclaves con taining a solution of hex-l-yne (10% by weight) and oct-l-ene (10% by weight). The catalyst was dissolved in a suitable solvent and added


204


to the substrate. The vessel was pressurized to 1200 p.s.i.g. with Ho at 25°C. and then heated quickly to 150° or 175°C. The vessel was then agitated for one hour, followed by rapid cooling. The products were analyzed for hexane, hexene, octane, and unreacted starting material. The results are given in Table IV. The turnover on catalyst is high, and 10* to 10 moles of substrate are hydrogenated per mole of catalyst. In all cases the hex-l-yne is hydrogenated faster than the oct-l-ene. The order of increasing activity is: Downloaded by UCSF LIB CKM RSCS MGMT on November 18, 2014 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1974 | doi: 10.1021/ba-1968-0070.ch010

4

IrBr(Ph PCH CH SPh) < [Ir(Ph PCH CH PPh ) ]Cl < 2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

[Ir(CO) ( P h P C H P P h ) ] B r 2

2

2

2

The results may be explained by assuming that the more stable the hydrogen adduct, the smaller the activity. Thus, [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) X adds H irreversibly and is inactive under ambient conditions. The H adducts of R h C l ( P P h ) and [ R h ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] C l have not been isolated as pure materials although for the former N M R peaks characteristics of R h - H have been observed (52). Similarly the addition of H to trans-lrC\(CO) (??\\ )> is reversible (45). These three com plexes are all catalysts for hydrogénations at atmospheric pressure. Vaska has reported a comparative study of trans-lrC\(CO) ( P P h ) and I r H ( C O ) ( P P h ) as hydrogénation catalysts and shown that the latter is the more active (46). H e ascribes this to the greater instability of the hydrogen adduct of I r H ( C O ) ( P P h ) which is a seven-coordinate species compared with the relatively stable six coordination expected from the former. If, as suggested by chemical evidence, the C O ligand is difficult to remove, then the dihydride adduct of [ I r ( C O ) ( P h P C H P P h ) ] X will be seven coordinate, and this catalyst will be more active than [ I r ( P h P C H C H P P h ) ] X , as is found. Finally, the activity ob served for the latter at high, but not low temperatures is probably caused by the more ready removal of hydrogen under the more vigorous conditions. 2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

Λ

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Summary This discussion has centered around the reaction of the hydrogen molecule, and little has been said concerning the alkyne or alkene. The detailed mechanism of catalysis by cl complexes is not fully understood. The question as to whether H or substrate is coordinated first or even that both of them need to be coordinated simultaneously is still un answered. Wilkinson has certainly shown that R h C l ( P P h ) w i l l react with H to give R h - H species which react subsequently with olefin to give the corresponding paraffin. From this study it is possible to ra tionalize the results by assuming that activity in catalysis is related to 8

2

3

3

2


10.

TAYLOR


205

the stability of the dihydride adducts of the catalyst. Nevertheless, many questions are still unanswered, and we are continuing our work to get further correlation between structure, chemical behavior, and catalytic activity of d complexes, and a fuller insight into the detailed mechanism of the hydrogénation reaction. Some of the compounds mentioned have been reported independently i n three recent papers (21, 39, 50). 8


Literature Cited (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36)

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Homogeneous Catalysis

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