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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING R,EVIEWS
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MATERIALS
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I N D U S T R * . A L textile fibers have been reviewed by Merrill (43)! icho stated that textile fibers are engineering materials, but they have not been treated as such until recent years, with the rapid development of synthetics. Selecting the right textile fibers or industrial textiles for iroducts of industry is no longer empirical. Historically. the engineering approach has been more concerned Lcith production techniques for making yarns and fabrics than with the basic relationships of material properties to the final product. because the raw materials \cere static. However, the tremendous technological breakthrough represented by the production of manmade fibers has drastically altered this. I t has provided the basis for use of the engineering approach to the selection of and designing \cith fibers in textiles. S o w . neiv fibers can be designed for specific application rather than existing fibers adapted by different means of mechanical spinning and weaving. T h e characteristics of properties and uses of natural fibers, mineral and inorganic fibers, and man-made fibers are discussed in regard to the engineering approach necessary to the selection of and designing )vith fibers. Production and Consumption .Modern Te.utiles ( 1 9 ) reports that production of man-made fibers in the Unired States for 1955 amounted to 1.718 billion pounds. This figure \vas a gain of 20‘3, over the figures for 1954. Preliminary estimates reveal that in 1955 the world production of rayon and acetate yarn and staple amounted to 5 billion pounds, a neiv record high, exceeding 1954 by about l l y c . Sharp (77) states that synthetic fibers will shine again. H e expects that 1956 production \vi11 advance hy 5 to 10% over that of 1955. Per capita consumption of manmade fibers amounted to lo1/* pounds. If this consumption figure remains firm through 1956, the estimated production increase should be 10%. Campbell (8) revieivs the progress of man-made fibers and forecast of 1956 production and end-use possibilities. H e has discussed in detail, the progress in
rayon, acetate. nylon, acrylics, polyesters: metallics, Teflon, saran, Vicara, and glass. T h e ivorld production of the three principal hard fibers (76), that is sisal, henequin, and abacca, continued its annual increase in 1935, totaling more than 1.5 billion pounds compared lvith 1.43 billion in 1954, 743,100,000 in 1942, according to the Department of Agriculture. Roggiss (5) predicts that the produc-
tion of Canadian asbestos will increase 50% by 1965 and a further 20% by 1980, compared with 1955. T h e production in 1955 was 1,058,615 tons. T h e U. S. Department of Agriculture (84) has estimated that the value of the 1955 crop of cotton and cotton seed is $2.651 billion. This is the fifth largest total on record. I n its final report for the crop. Jchich was based largely on reports of ginneries, the department estimated 1955 production of lint a t 14,721 ,-
C. S. GROVE, JR. Syracuse University, Syracuse 10, N. Y. C. S. GROVE, Jr., professor of chemical engineering and director of engineering research at Syracuse University, i s a graduate of Lenoir Rhyne College; he received his B.S. in chemical engineering from North Carolina State College (1 928), M.S. from MIT ( 1 9341, and Ph.D. from the University o f Minnesota (1 942). Before his appointment to Syracuse, Grove taught at North Carolina State and Minnesota and Iowa Slate Universities. In industry he was employed as research engineer in the rayon department of Du Pont from 1941 to 1945 and as consultant to the W. A. Sheaffer Pen Co. from 1948 to 1950.
ROBERT S. CASEY
W. A. Sheaffer Pen Co., Fort Madison, Iowa ROBERT 5. CASEY, chief chemist for W. A. Sheaffer Pen Co., has collaborated with Grove in preparing REC’s fiber reviews since they were inaugurated in 1947. He developed Skrip writing fluid for the Sheaffer Ca. and has served os manager of the Skrip factory and manager of the co-npany’s research laboratory. Casey, a graduate of Trinity College (Cann.), i s a licensed professional engineer and in 1946 received the Anson Marson Award of the low0 Engineering Society. He i s interested in chemical liierature and documentation and takes part in the activities of many technical and professional associations.
JOSEPH
1. VODONIK
Industrial Rayon Corp., Cleveland, Ohio JOSEPH L. VODONIK, o f the Industrial Rayon Corp., has assisted Casey and Grave in compiling this review since 1950. These authors rotate primary responsibility for the review. Vodonik studied chemical engineering at the University o f Minnesota where he received the degrees o f B.Ch.E. in 1939 and Ph.D. in 1947. From 1944 until 1946 he did exploratory research for the National Defense Research Corp. In 1947 he joined Du Pont a s research engineer, first in the rayon department and later in the continuous processing of polymer for fibers and film.
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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 000 bales of 500 pounds in gross weight, compared with 13,696,000 bales for the 1954 crop and 12>952,000for the 10year period-that is, 1944 to 1953 average. While rigid acreage controls designed to hold down surpluses Lvere in force, the average acre yield of lint set a new record of 417 pounds in 1955, ivhich \vas 138 pounds above the 10-year average. T h e National Cotton Council of *America (57) has reported that in 1954 the total domestic mill consumption of raw cotton rvas 8,610,690 bales. Of this amount, 3,294,800 bales \vent into apparel, 2,727,970 bales into other household uses. 1,823,210 bales into industrial uses, and the balance into miscellaneous uses. Major industrial uses ivere for automobile purposes in seat covers, lining for upholstery. and convertible tops; other uses include awnings, bags, machinery belts, cordage and tivine, filter cloth, industrial hose, industrial thread, electrical insulation, medical supplies (such as adhesive tapes, bandages, gauzes, and sponges), and shoes. In 1955 it \vas reported that (75) tire manufacturers used roughl!. 423:000,000 pounds of rayon for tire cord. This represented 437, of the total rayon poundage used in the United States during that year. Dunford (77) reports that the past two years have it-itnessed a steady growth in the consumption of rayon staple in the United States; not only has increased domestic production been readily absorbed. but imports have recently reached new peaks. During the same period the consumption of cotton has remained relatively stead>-.while that of new wool has shoivn a declining tendency. T h e folloLving factors can be cited as contributing to the improvement in rayon consumption:
1. Development of efficient stabilizing finishes 2. Greatly increased use of solution dyed fibers 3. Development of the use of rayon in tufted carpets 4. Recognition of the value of viscose rayon staple as a fiber suitable for blending lvith almost any other fiber. America’s Textile Reporter ( 7 ) has listed a complete tabulation of facts: including technical and production data of 22 of the principal man-made fibers and six metallic y r n s . Il’ood (88)has stated that the )‘ear of 1955 \vas the biggest in the histor>-of the rayon industry. Output is now greater than all other manmade fibers combined, reaching a total of 972,800,000 pounds. H e predicts that 1956 may !cell turn out to be as productive for the industry as 1955. I n that year, rayon tire cord accounted for more than 40% of all the rayon con-
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sumed. Despite production cutbacks in the automobile industry in 1956, tire manufacturers expect replacement orders to take u p much of the slack.
Cotton a n d Ramie T h e doniinancc of cottoil has been such that many textile people icere of the opinion. even as late as 10 to 15 years ago, that cotton could never be replaced, and chemical modifications of cotton \Yere unnecessary for its properties could not be improved. Holvever, many of the friends of cotton \cere aivare that its major weakness \vas its Ivrinkling characteristics. T h e development of the new man-made fiber fabrics made this Lvrinkling characteristic of cotton more apparent. I n the last 10 years, textile researchers have improved the crease resistance properties of cotton. L-rea and melamine formaldehyde resins \vhich had been used for years on rayon as creaseproofing and stabilizing material \\-ere taken as a starting point in this research program. \Yakeman (65)has reported on recent studies a t the Textile Research Institute shoiring that cotton fiber properties, particularly fineness, have appreciable effects on the fabric properties. This conclusion \vas based on experimental work in the Institute’s cotton research and indicates that future development in utilization of cotton may lead to the extended selection of cottons for specific end-use products. Banner ( 2 ) commenting on the groiving popular demand for blends of cotton and synthetics states that this shoi\-s the validity of a n old merchandising truism: make a better product to meet the needs of the times and success \vi11 be assured. The blending of natural fibers Jcith s>-nthetic ones has been responsible for much of the improvement in modcrn fabrics. For generations. cotton has outranked all other fibers in volume usage for ivearing apparel according to Jennings (32). Its availability, comfort, \vashabilit)-, and rugged physical properties all favor this position. Because of this volume usage, developments in the field of dyestuffs, textile chemicals, and processing machinery assumed importance or \vere discounted, depending upon hoiv \vel1 they bvorked ivith cotton. Increased use of ramie in the United States, particularly in industrial textiles, has resulted in price decreases u p to about 30% since last August. Among the latest developments for this fiber is its use in the laminating trade as a reinforcing agent. Ramie is claimed to be about 25Yc cheaper than glass fiber and has almost equal strength. Initial tests are also being made on molds for tool making and for airplane parts. .Another n a v use is in papermaker dryer aprons
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
\\.here the ramie is used in equal combination Tvith cotton. Although such aprons cost more than cotton, they are said to have greater strength and longer life. T h e fiber is also being tested in fire hose, mechanical and industrial packing, irrigation pipes, upholstery, and in combination \vith rayon in tufted rugs.
New Fibers a n d Properties hloncrieff (52) remarks that industry has created need for fibers Xvith ne\v properties and appropriately it has made the new fibers and even more appropriately is using them. H e discusses the achievements that have been made in high tenacity fibers. H e (.53) also discusses durability, resistance to Lyater, chemicals and biological influences, and surface smoothness of these new manmade or artificial fibers. h-eiv and modified fibers highlight the 1955 synthetic fiber table prepared by London (41). H e states that nexv synthetic fibers, entering the commercial picture in the past t\io years, are split from already established fibers rather than new fiber families. Properties of Fortisan-36, Arnel, and Type 6 nylon are presented. These ne\\ fibers \\rill generally be more suited for certain specific uses than their parents and less !yell-suited for other specific uses. Fortisan-36 (73) has been described as a fiber produced by an entirely ne\v and different process. The producer states that the process produces yarns tvith a high degree of uniformity and a t the same time it is especially suitable for the production of the heavy deniers required in industrial application. T h e cross section of Fortisan-36 is almost circular and the effects of acid and alkalies on it are much the same as for cotton and rayon. Other aspects in which it resembles cotton and rayon are in its resistance to moths, its electrical properties, the effect of solvents on it. and resistance to mildeiv. microorganisms, and sunlight. General data and physical chemical properties of Fortisan-36 are available from the Celanese Corp. ( 7 0 ) . T h e manufacture of Courplepa is briefly described by Boulton (6) and a short historical revieiv is given on the development of cellulose triacetate fibers. Details of the physical and chemical properties of this fiber are enumerated. Its over-all behavior as a textile fiber resembles that of a s y t h e t i c fiber. O n the other hand: its d>-eing properties a r e more nearly like those of secondary acetate. Rivers and Franklin (65) describe Teflon. a tetrafluoroethylene fiber produced by Du Pont. This fiber consists of carbon chains completely saturated with fluorine which gives it a fantastic
FIBERS resistance to chemical degradation. Some of the projected end uses for Teflon are packing for shafts on chemical pumps and valves. filtration of corrosive liquids, gasketing fabrics, filtration of particles from high temperature or corrosive gases, a n d protective clothing. Carpenter and \.l’heeler ( 9 ) have described the properties of poly(viny1 alcohol) fiber. These fibers shoiv a good dry tenacity but the ratio wet to dry tenacity is inferior to that of other synthetics. In general, the chemical resistance of these fibers is excellent. A neiv testile material described as a modified acrylic fiber \vas introduced recently by Eastman (50). It is called \-ere1 and is said by the company to be a special purpose fiber ivith many properties ivhich \vi11 make it useful in blends ivith ivool and cotton, in pile fabrics, knit\vear, and industrial cloths. T h e functional properties claimed for \-ere1 are soft hand, ease of dyeing, excellent flame resistance, ivhite color, excellent chemical resistance, controlled shrinkage, higher moisture regain. press and shape retention, good \vrinkle recovery, and resistance to moths and mildeiv. \.erel, reported by Time (83) to be a “neiv ivool-like synthetic fiber,” ivill be produced at a rate of 75,000,000 pounds per year and \vi11 initially be priced at $1.10 per pound, competitive to other acrylic fibers. A unique and truly encyclopedic compilation of technical, patent? production, and historical data on synthetic fibers has been presented in tabular form by Koch (35). These tables contain, in detail, the essential facts of more than 100 synthetic fibers manufactured throughout the ivorld including the Soviet Union and its satellite countries. T h e tabulation is confined to ivhat Koch calls “the true synthetics“ and thus deliberately excludes rayon and acetate. Koch (37) has discussed copolymer fibers. H e states that copolymer fibers are synthetic fibers manufactured from copolymers of vinyl or vinylidine compounds and ivhose chief component makes u p 85Yc or less of the Ivhole or Lvhich consists of more than tivo compounds. Properties, raw materials, methods of manufacture, and uses are described. T h e tivo most important commercial polyester fibers are Terylene and Dacron. Koch (3.1) discusses methods of manufacture, properties, and uses. Peterson (38) stated that fabrics of Dacron pol>-ester fiber appeared to be better than those of Orlon and nylon in the hydrophobic group based on performance in \vash and hvear fabric. Poly(viny1 chloride) fibers are synthetic fibers manufactured from poly(viny1 chloride) or post-chlorinated poly(viny1 chloride) or of copolymers containing a t least 85Yc vinyl chloride. Koch (35)
describes the method of manufacture, chemical and physical properties. and uses. In a continuation of his series of manmade fiber data sheets, Koch (38) describes the properties, manufacture, and chemical constitution of the polyacrylonitrile fiber. T h e manufacture and properties of K-icara have been described by lt-alker ( 8 6 ) . Basic raiv material for this fiber is commercial zein, a n alcohol-soluble protein from corn ii-ith a reportcd molecular ivcight of 24,800. This ixan-made protein fiber is making a special contribution in the field of testile raiv materials.
Research Because of the failure of the textile industry to pump mane>- into research over the )-ears: Rockefeller (67) said natural fibers are noir feeling serious inroads to the concentrated research of synthetic fibers. H e declared that in rhis day of research no group ivithin our economy, no matter holv important. can afford to rest content ivith things as they are. Rockefeller said that cotton producers themselves \vi11 have to takc responsibilit?. for a certain amount of research pioneering. so as to improve the use of cotton. \Vhile his remarks ivere basically directed toivard the southern cotton producers and textile manufacturers, they are equally pertinent to research efforts on all forms of fibers, especially the natural fibers. I t is ivell knoit-n and recognized that the testile industry has spent a very loiv percentage of their net return for research as compared to manv other types of industry. Pigini ( 5 9 ) mentions five specific problems calling for more intensive research b!- fiber producers. These five problems ivhich still hamper producers of fabrics and fabric distributors aredyeability. the sensitivity of rayon to moisture, the lolv strength of acetate yarns. sensitivity of new man-made fibers to static and to effects of pilling: and the lack of comfort due to lo-.v moisture absorption or poor moisture dispersion. He further estimated that the cher-ical industry allocates 2 to 3Yc of gross sales dollars to yarn and fiber research and less than 0.3 of lyGto mill problems. Textile research achievements in 1955 icere revieived by Goldberg (26, 27). H e declared that opponents of natural fibers may contend that there is little room for improvement, but a literature review indicates that the scientists still have hope of effecting modifications to enhance the properties of cotton and \voo1 in particular. I n the man-made fiber field announcements \vere made of new names or progress reports on synthetics disclosed in previous years.
Goodrich adopted Ilarlan as a name for their new dinitrile fiber. American Cyanamid reverted to Creslan as a better designation for their esperimental acrylic fiber and yarn. Allied Chemical named their caprolactam nylon, Caprolan. Celanese Corp. ivcnt into commercial production of their high tenacit). filament rayons Fiber ]?(-6 and Fortisan-36. Other fiber and yarn processes. \varping> ij-inding: slashing. lveaving and knitting. dyeing and finishing, testing methods and equipment. anc! their effects on construction are also discussed. Sookne (77) has attempted to shoiv some of the relationships betxvecn the chemical structure of fibers and useful properties of textiles rr-ade from them. He states : I t is true that as ice learn more and more about yarn and fabric structure, and particularly finishing: it becomes increasingly possible to overcome intrinsic deficiencies a n d fit a fiber for a chosen end use. The alterations produced in chemical finishing have becn remarkable in the last few years. especially in dress \\‘car and other fields ivhere the functional requirements are not too stringent. O n the other hand; Tvhile it might be possible to make a good tire cord from almost any fiber, it i\ould take a great deal of hard \i.ork to make i t from ~ v o o lfor example. Ii‘e might be saying that lvhile it is possible to make almost any end use item from any fiber, it is still easier to make a silk purse from silk. Hall (38) states that although the s p t h e t i c fibers made from pol>,amides, polyesters. and polyvinyl compounds have excellent properties-for example, high tensile strength. toughness, and resilience-they are liable to suffer degradation \\.hen exposed for long Feriods to light or unduly high temperatcres. This dcgradation is generally revealed by iveakening and becorning brittle. accompanied by a discoloration not easily removed by ordinary scouring or bleaching treatments. Fortunately, the n o r x a l conditions under ivhich synthetic fiber testile fabric garments are used do not soon reveal this peculiar instability. but it is a n inherent characteristic so undesirable that much research is today being directed toivards discovering methods for making synthetic fibers less susceptible to such deterioration. Hearle (30) describes the preparation of isotactic polymers and discusses the possibility of their use as fibers of the future. Based u p o n application of the special ideas of stereochemistry to polymers, he feels safe in predicting a great future for fibers made from isotactic polymers. An ultracentrifugal examination of ground nut protein treated ivith various
VOL. 48, NO. 9, PART II
SEPTEMBER 1956
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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION bases has been made by Naismith (56). I t was shown that only bases Lvith a dissociation constant higher than about caused an appreciable reduction in molecular \\-eight in the protein from peanuts and the possibility of fiber formation from this denatured protein. Somers (76) discusses the use of polyoxamides for a production of fibers. T h e polyoxamides are near relatives of the nylon family but make use of the cheaper and more readily available oxalic acid as compared to the relatively expensive adipic acid. I t is stated by Chemical 1l”k ( 7 7) that polyoxamides can be made by starting with a diamine, such as 3-methyl hexyl methylenediamine dissolved in ethanol. Diethyloxalate or another oxalic acid ester is added. Tliis yields oxamide, which after several hours in ethanol forms a low molecular %\.eight polymer called prepolyoxamide. \Vhen this material is heated a t 240’ C. under nitrogen, high inolecular weight polyoxamide is produced. Clonipared \rith nylon, the new fibers rate high. They show better strength re tention after exposure to ultraviolet light and also have higher resistance to fatigue and moist atmosphere.
Gilfillan and Linden (25) discuss the effects of nuclear radiation on the strength of yarn. They state that recent published results had indicated a n improvement in the physical properties of various plastics by nuclear radiation. These rerults suggested the possibility of obtaining improvements by similar radiation of textile fibers. Since strength of a fiber is generally of primary importance, this was the first property investigated. l t l t h i n the limits of their investigation the indications \\-ere :
1. Gamma irradiation seriously weakened the cellulosic fibers and nylon, but had no visible effect on the strength of the Type 81 Orlon 2. h’eutron irradiation Jveakened all of the fibers tesred 3. For the same amounts of neutron irradiation, the cellulosic fibers Jveakened to such a degree that it \\-as impractical to test them 4. 1Vhere it icas possible to test a neutron irradiated yarn, the stressstrain characteristics \\-ere visibly changed. I n summary, they state that it can be concluded that all of the yarns investigated \sere injured a t the level of radia-
tion used in the experiments. This did not prove that it is impossible to improve the strength properties of yarn by irradiation but suggested that, if such a n improvement is possible, it \\-ill be found at lower doses than those used here. Trilok, a neir fabric which is \\-oven flat but becomes permanently three dimensional Tvhen dipped in boiling water, has been introduced by United States Rubber Co. (63). Tt’oven on a regular loom with polyethylene yarn and conventional textile fibers, the new fabric forms “puffs” when the polyethylene is shrunk by boiling water in a matter of seconds. S e w patterns in textures not other\\ ise obtainable and a three-dirnensional depth effect can be achieved. Filastic (68) is a new type of rubber produced by breaking raiv natural rubber into fiber form and reconstituting it into a \\-eblike formation in which the fibers are locked [vherever the!- cross. The product is said to provide great elasticity and flexibility, and considerably greater strength than conventional foam rubber. Potential markets for the new product are as insoles for shoes. acoustical paneling, nonslip underpads for carpets, surgical bandages. rorsets. and girdles.
A dome to protect delicate r a d a r equipment stands 37 feet high and i s 54 feet in diameter. It i s inflated with less than 1 pound o f pressure in the wall, which are reinforced with rayon cord. The dome was constructed b y B. F. Goodrich CO. for the U. S. Air Force
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
FIBERS I n heavier sizes, thc. material will be strong enough for conveyor belting.
Industrial Uses Production of mechanical rubber goods is expected LO reach a record of $1.2 billion this )-ear, a 12% rise over 1354 ( 7 4 . -An even further increase next year is a distinct possibility, depending on over-all industrial health, according to market sources. Breakdo\vn of the 1355 estimate in dollar \ralue of product folloms : belts and belting, 160,000,000; convelor and elevator belts, 54,000,000 ; tlat transmission belts, 20,000,000; other belts, 5,000,000; vee belts, industrial, 55,000,000; automotive 25,000,000 ; hose, 210,000,000 ; packings including rods and gaskets, 35,000,000; tapes including rubber and pressuresensitive tapes, 20,000,GOO; flooring, 20,000,000; m a u and matting, 45,000,000; molded and extruded goods, 220,000,000; tubing except reinforced 10,000~000;printers rolls, 5,000,000; other rolls and coverings, 15,000,000; and miscellaneous items (tank linings and supports), 110,000,000. T h e production of these mechanical rubber goods, in most cases, will require an increased production of textile reinforcement fibers. .A marked increase in discussion of burlap points up its value as a n industrial textile. Slost of the inquiries concerned end uses in automotive, railroad, steel, and decorative industry. Burlap is a fabric of endless possibilities. Burlap, liquidproofed, and powderproofed, laminated with paper or plastics can carry just about everything that pours. I t can be coated, dyed, fleeced, or printed, and today’s improved production ensures a dependable supply. Rayon displaced cotton in tire cord very rapidly only a few years ago. Rayon had the help of fortunate circumstances, chief of which was that the United States \viis compelled to use synthetic rubber with which rayon could do a better j o b than cotton. Now rayon is being challenged by nylon and other fibers in tire cord material, Tire designers have come to realize the severity of the torture a tire undergoes, as it rolls along the road. I t has been calculated that every cord in a tire bends and twists more than 500,000 times every 1000 miles. Tire twist in cotton ply and cable tire cords were added to specifications during the early 1920’s. By 1943 high strength rayon was generally adopted for automobile and truck tires. New super high strength rayons \vent into production in 1953. S o w nl-lon, first used in airplane tires, is making a major impact on the automotive industry. I t is strong a n d has outstanding bruise and impact resistance. Another late development is a tire with a layer of steel wire cord fabric
betlveen rhe rubber tread and the four plys of nylon cord. The ivire makes the tire invulnerable to cut, rupture, or blowouts. S y l o n cord is due for a big boost in the “off-the-road” tire market which industry sources expect to make a sharp sales gain. T h e big tires used on heavy machinery utilize many more than the average 4 pounds of nylon cord that goes into passenger tires. Stadvec (79) states that the industrial products and development divisions of certain rubber companies predict that nylon fabric and rubber air springs and nylon and rubber fuel tanks lvill be in use in tomorrois’s automobile. Government business has considerably strengthened activity in coated and laminated fabrics. Sources report selling has improved over a month ago and is substantially better than in March. T h e pickup has given the market a n encouraging outlook for the normally slow second period of 1956. T h e recent 207, decrease in nylon yarn prices is expected to be felt soon \vir11 price reductions on coated and laminated products a t the end-use level. Tarpaulins for commercial use and inflation gear for the Government appeared to be the products in great demand. T h e government use of coated and laminated products is resulting in increased commercial demand. T h e reasoning being -if it’s good enough for the Government, it must be good enough for me. Approximately 5,000,000 yards of coated nylon fabric for tarpaulins and other end uses were consumed in 1955. This was a n increase of 300 to 500% in the past two years. Fabric coating techniques are revieised by Hamiray (29). I t is estimated that the coated fabric industry sold, in 1955, enough material to encircle the globe three times. Some 120,000,000 yards valued a t more than 5100,000,000 were produced for a variety of end uses. T h e highly styled and colorful upholstery and trim in automobiles, the upholstery on the comfortable occasional chairs in living rooms, and the book binding on reference books are just a few of the end uses. Proper selection of the base fabric is the first step in the construction of a sound coated fabric. Tensile strength, tear strength, cost, weight, appearance, and flammability are factors that must be considered. T h e second step in the manufacture of a coated fabric is a choice of coating compound. Hamway concludes that the continued growth of the plastic coated fabric industry is dependent upon a number of factors: the ingenuity of the chemists, engineers, production men, and stylists within the industry; continued education of the consumer and industrial user to prevent misapplication to the product; the
maintenance of hi;h qualit)- standards; and [he deve1opn;ent of improved ra\v materials-for exaoiple, internally plasticized resins, pcrinanent plasLicizers I+-ith improved lo js temperature resisrance, and improved finishes to minimize surface tack. Stadvec (75) describes a conveyor belt made with glass fabric insulate Lvhich he calls the “fire curtain” belt. I t is designed to handle scorching chunks of hot metal with temperatures as high as 1400” F. T h e nc\v fire curtain belts have two plys or g l m fabrics that float in the top rubber cover. Strength is retained by the %lass fabric despite i u intense heat thus barring the progress of hot metal objects through the belt. The over-all strength of the belt and its cover remain as stroiig as ever, .it-hile belts constructed \vith conventional fabrics are burned clear Through by hot metal objects in one continuous burning action. Reid (65) describes the use of lvoven u i r e belts for washing, deLvatering, dr>-ing, forming, reacting, and curing. He surcs that these belts are flexible, they I heat, cold, and corrosive conditions, and aid gas-solid contact processes. Goodrich (46)has described a rcinforced vinyl-impregnated conveyor belt \shich has many special advantages for a \side variety of applications. I t has excellent resistance to abrasion, it resists alkalies, vegetable, animal or mineral oils, greases, certain organic and inorganic acids, sugars, solutions of common salt, and fertilizers. I t has a lo\\ friction surface, that will not flake or strip off. The smooth, nonporous surface of the vinyl-impregnated belt can be cleaned easily and quickly. These vinyl conveyor belts have taken over \vhere rubber belts have failed in the performance of certain specialized jobs. Over 20y0 of the present production of Dyne1 is going into industrial uses, according to Snyder (75). Among the more important uses of this fiber are fabrics for both u e t and dry filtration, dust bags of various types, paint roller covers, and chemically resistant work clothes. Softer and more efficient brush bristles can be produced by using a new type of monofilament based on Bakelite styrene that splits into dozens of branches when the tip is struck a sharp blow (45). Stowell (80) discusses in detail, the outlook of glass fiber fabric; he states that the applications in which woven glass is used are industrial laminates, marquisette curtains, draperies, and screens. There are, of course, many applications for glass yarns in electrical wire, tape reinforcing, and a host of other end uses. Glass fibers, too, go into hundreds of industries including insulation and air conditioning. Of the total glass fiber produced, woven fabric accounts for perhaps one quarter of the market.
VOL. 48, NO. 9, P A R T II
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SEPTEMBER 1956
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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION Filtration Fabrics are the most common industrial filter media. T h e type of fiber in the fabric has a n important bearing on filter life and performance. klerrill (42) says that selection of the proper filter medium is tied to the basic objective of the filter process, Lvhether a fluid or gas is to he clarified or if a valuable solid is to be recovered. I n some operations the tivo processes are combined and even a third added. such as a leaching bath. I n commercial application, a filter medium must meet three primary considerations-efficient Aoiv rate; satisfactory yua1it)- of product; and satisfactory mechanical and chemical properties. H e described the chemical and heat resistance of various filter fabrics including nylon, Orion. dynel. Teflon. and cotton. Although their initial cost is higher in most cases: the syntheric fiber fabrics (82) are becoming more important in filtering technique as their higher cost is often offset by superior service quality. Blascivitz and Judson (-1) have de-
scribed t!ie filtration of radioactive aerosols by glass fibers. T h e initial program \$as divided into three primar). qtudies consisting of: 1 , Correlation of collection efficiency under start-uIi conditions it-ith the superlicial vclocit!. of thc gas stream and the depth and packing density of the various types of g!ass fibers 2. T h e correlation of fio\v resistance and the start-up conditions \vir11 the same variables 3 . .A study of the expected service life of glass fiber filters Results of this initisl program led to the design of glass fiber filters capable of operating a t a higher superficial air velocity than the plant sand filrcrs and Tvith a greater efficiency. a loiver f l 0 . s . resistance. and a greater life espec tanc)..
Textiles in Plastics Industry Simonds (71) has revieived the tot'il market for textiles especially in the plastics industry. It is estimated that the present sales of fiber.!; and fabrics for iise
Courtesy Celanese Corp.
Cross section of V-belt showing t h e cord reinforcement
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
in close association ivith plastics is approximately 600,000,000 pounds or 1 pound for every 4 pounds of plastic. This rather high estimate includes many coating applications Tvhere the weight of plastics is a small part of the weight of the textile component. To be conservative in judging future markets, a figure of 1 pound of textile to every 10 pounds of plastics might be assumed. Then, if the rate of gro\vth of plastics in the next 20 years is assumed to equal that of the last 20 years (Lvhich plastic industry authorities predict), a large total of 62.5 billion pounds of plastics w i l l be reached. This, a t 1 pound of textiles for every 10 pounds of plastics, means that in 20 years the market for textiles in association Ivith plastics ii-ould equal the present total United States textile production. Simonds further states rhat the total consumption of textiles in the plastics market falls into five principal groups-high pressure laminate; low pressure laminate; moldings using macerated cloth or fibers as reinforcement; fabrics, coated or impregnated \vir11 plastics; and fabrics as backings for sheet plastics. Technological advancements in materials for reinforcing plastics (4') are being made a t such a rapid pace that the production end of the industry-that is, molders, laminators, and fabricators-have not had time to catch u p xvith the research of the ra;v material suppliers. Currently, about a dozen new materials, mainly synthetic fibers: and equally as many ne\v forins of conventional reinforcements are being studied for a ivide range of commercial applications. T h e manufacture of plastic truck bodies: utilizing glass fiber-reinforced plastic material has been described by Plastics TechtdogJ (M.J). Fabrication techniques, properties. and aircraft applications of glass fiber-reinforced plastic tooling of the cold set tl-pe for aircraft materials are described by XIoroii-icz (55). Reinforced plastic truck bodics i\-hich arc rustproof, light in Lveight. durable? sanitary. and easy to maintain have been produced by Permaglas, Inc. (67). These bodies have been used on insulated retail milk delivery trucks. Ketv housings for machine tools are being made of reinforced plastics and produced \vith plastic tooling effecting a savings estimated at 20 to 40y0 or more. I n addition, the lightiveight housing also saves time and labor in the maintenance and repair of the heal,? machine tool. AcLording to Gisholt hlachine Co. (fi?). these housings are made of pol>.ester rehills that are combined with glass fiber. Cutler (13) discusses the use of reinforced plastics in aircrart primary structures. .At the present time, they are used only ivhere radar requirements are
FIBERS set. There are three major problem areas of strength, weight, and cost of materials and fabrication. Based on his analysis, the future outlook is bright. Shannon and Biefeld (69) state that the use of glass fiber-reinforced plastic products has become \videspread in recent years largely because they are tough, lightweight, high strength materials having excellent rveathering resistance and a dimensional stability superior to most metals. The highly filled glass fiber-reinforced pol\-ester molding compound can be easily compression molded and can be pigmented to any color desired. Results are given bp Raun (6J) of tests conducted on glass-reinforced plastic pressure vessels developed for special Chemical Corps applications. Design and test criteria are presented together ivith experimental data regarding strength, volumetric expansion, permanence set under pressure, material fatigue, and other properties. A new approach (44) to both the economics and engineering of reinforced plastic tanks for storage and dispensing of distilled water, acid solutions, fuel oil? and other problem liquids is proving highly successful. Press molded tanks are in mass production using standard components of glass fiber and resin. Sections are formed in polished steel-mated dies and readily assembled on the job. Shanta (70) states that plastics, especially polyesters, phenolics, and epoxies, have been reinforced by various methods to render them more useful. Likeivise, resin-bonded abrasive products have been reinforced to make them safer t o operate, to increase their utility, and to improve their performance. This has led to the development of new types of reinforced abrasive \cheek. -4vailable in convenient kit form, plastic materials are used for low cost repairs on metal, reinforced plastic, wood, and concrete products (10). T-arious plastic metal cold solders and various combinations of plastic resins with glass fiber cloth or mat are being put to use toda)- in a form of plastic surgery designed to give a new lease on life to torn, dented, or rusted out body sections of automobiles. hlore important: the success of these plastic materials in automotive repair xvork has also stimulated and increased the aivareness of the quality patching j o b \\hich they can do in other fields. Reinforcement of Teflon ( 7 2 ) \virh inorganic fibers b;: a method in Tvhich the structure of the fibers is maintained has resulied in a iiroduct xyith a n increased operating range. This material has been successfully tested as a gasket material for chemical processing equiplnent and for such fabricated parts as valve seats and
guide bushings. Reinforced material resists cold flow and heat distortion a t temperatures u p to 600” F., while retaining most of its chemical inertness.
Work Clothes It has been reported that manufacturing sources expect work-clothes retailers to have their biggest year in \vork shirts and estimate that orders will be heavily increased. This is especially true in the industrial apparel market \vhere acid and caustic resistance are obtained by the use of Orlon and dynel. hlen and lvomen \\.ho xvork in uniforms have a particular reason for dreading the hot days of summer. Uniform fabrics are usually made in heavy iveight because these Ivear better and are less likely to “muss” than lighter Iveight fabrics. I n \varm Lveather, hoivever, most \vearers find such heavy uniforms just plain uncomfortable. Addition of high percentages of Dacron (78) can greatly improve the appearance: comfort. and serviceability of garments. Uniform manufacturers have found that fabrics, which have a t least joyc Dacron: resist wrinkling: hold their shape, and tailor \veil. Boyd and others (7) have discussed rayon staple and cotton blends for work clothing. They state, during the past few years, extensive experiments have been made on the application of rayon staple in blends with .American cotton to fabrics used in industrial Tvork clothing. The results of these experiments \vere so interesting that some accounts of the results have been published. This paper also gives further details of the production of yarn and fabrics and the manner in Xvhich the serviceability trials and laboratory tests were carried out. Nonwoven Fabrics Bonded fiber fabrics are new materials which are becoming more widely and increasingly used by enterprising consumers throughout the world because of their low cost of manufacture and their novel properties. By character and usage bonded fiber fabrics fall betiveen textiles and paper and yet cannot be classified directly under either of these designations. They have many of the properties of woven materials, but their manufacture does not involve the traditional textile operations of spinning, Lveaving, or knitting. Bonded fiber fabric is simply a web or mass of fibers held together \vith a bonding agent. Elliot (20) discusses manufacture and uses of bonded fiber fabrics. Leventhal (39) states that nonivoven fabrics in which fibers are held together in a continuous sheet are capable of the be-
havior in use comparable with those that are produced by the multiple techniques of spinning and weaving. H e describes the formation of the web of a nonwoven fabric, made by laying the fibers in a random, oriented, or two directional manner, and then discusses continuous and discontinuous bonding of fibers and the advantages of each. Bonding may be carried out with rnany types of chemicals or agents including simple adhesives, curable rc:sins, thermoplastic fibers, and solutions of cellulose. The procedure of application for each of these is described. Garel (24) states that, if the textile industry does not speed research in nonLvoven fabrics, it will find itself, to a great extent, being replaced by the plastics industry. I t is said that the range of properties that can be obtained in fabrics in clothing is greater than before because of nonu’oven fabrics. It is possible to have a garment Lveighing practically nothing, but \vith ideal insulating properties. xveather and \\.ear resistance, and last. but not least, an unlimited range of color ability and attractiveness. hloncrieff (54) outlines industrial uses of artificial fibers including those where xveathering. nonflammability, shrinkability, solubility, lightness, shortness of staple, and brittleness are desirable properties. For example, he states that, for most purposes, a low melting point is disadvantageous in a fiber. Nevertheless, some of the synthetic fibers which are the unfortunate possessors of such a characteristic have found special uses which could not conceivably have been filled by any natural fiber. Thus, the poly(viny1 chloride) fibers Rhovyl and Fibravyl can be heated until softened, and then molded to shape, that is, for brassieres. Vinyon HH, which melts a t about 132’ C. and softens a t a considerably IoLver temperature, has been used in the manufacture of bonded fabrics Lvhich rely on fiber adhesion instead of a Xvoven structure after having been heated to tacky temperature. Hubbard and others (37) described the physical properties of papers froin synthetic fiber. They state : The outstanding functional properties of the newest synthetic fibers such as a resistance to degradation by strongly corrosive chemicals, molds, bacteria, sunlight, heat, moisture, and their high strength, flex endurance, and abrasion resistance have led to a study of methods converting them into paper. Paperlike materials made ivith synthetic fibers have many potential uses (57). These can be made Tvith a \>.ide range of appearances and properties, from crisp paperlikc structures to drapable fabriclike or tough parchmentlike or
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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION bulky feltlike structures. The physical and functional properties of papers prepared with nylon, Dacron, Orlon, and from blends of these fibers permit their uses in many areas \shere paper is not normally used. Such uses include paperlike structures for electrical insulation, high pressure laminate reinforcement, m a p and chart paper, tracing paper and cloth, fabriclike structures for filtration, tarpaulins, coated fabrics, laundry press covers, electrical tapes, and beltlike structures for low pressure laminate reinforcing bats, laundry press pads, and filter felts. Research a t the United States National Bureau of Standards, (27) has succeeded in producing an all-glass paper, eight times as strong as that first made in 1951. Because of its greater strength, this paper should prove much more convenient for those uses, such as gas masks, chemical filters, and electrical equipment. T h e unique properties of the all-glass paper have already made it particularly valuable.
Textile Finishes Ellenis (79)states : More than ever this year, the nation’s chemical companies will be competing for a bigger slice of the pie representing raw material sales to textile mills. It’s a juicy pie too, close to 1.25 billion a year. No wonder then, the chemical executives are handing out tough assi,Unments to company scientists to develop new fibers, improve present ones, work hard on improving textile chemicals. T o help researchers achieve these ends, giant chemical firms are pushing construction of ultramodern textile chemical laboratories dedicated to the development of tomorrow’s man-made fibers, finishes, detergents, solvents, dyes, surfactants, starches, and the other staples used by textile mills.
When man-made fibers are blended with wool they can be eaten by moth
I I I I I I I I I
I I
I I I I I I I I I I
larva. A new mothproofing chemical which gives these blends durable protection is described by Karr (33). One of tile Isorst hazards Lsith certain fibers is their ease of combustion. il’-ard (87) discusses the principles and practices of the flameproofing of textiles. T h e methods a t present available for rendering cellulosic fibers flameproof are described: soluble finishes, and socalled permanent ester finishes, precipitation treatments, and coatings. The flameproofing of cellulose acetate, ~vool, nylon, and blends is also discussed. K e w data on the ignition temperatures and vertical burning rates of a series of fibers are given. Catalysis in blended chcniical finishes is important in properly curing or fixing all of these products on the textile fiber. Gagliardi (22) presents a discussion on the theory and mechanism of catalysis of various chemicals used by the textile finishing industry bvith special emphasis on the practical problem. He states:
In some applications of blended thermosetting resins, to cellulose fabrics a single acid yielding catalyst \vi11 properly cure all the resins on heating. LVith combinations of formaldehyde, nitrogen resins, ketone resins, hydroxylated polymers, and cationic softeners, the durable silicone- or resin-type water repellents, it becomes necessarv to use selective specific catalysts. In some cases, the specific catalyst for one of the chemical finishing agents may be antagonistic to the proper cure of a second finishing agent in the finishing mix. This is illustrated in the attempts to use a n alkaline catalyzed ketone resin with a n acid catalyzed urea o r melamine resin at the same time. Aqueous solutions of ethylamine from
70 to 1 0 0 ~ oamine have been investigated as to their effectiveness in reducing the crj-stallinity of cotton cellulose. Loeb and Segal (40) state that the degree of crystallinity of‘ cotton cellulose was found to be little affected by ethyl-
amine solutions containing 7092 of the amine. T h e amine solutions of slightly higher concentrations isere found to strongly reduce both the crystallinity and leveling off degree of polymerization. This reduction continues lrith further increase in amine concentrations. The achievement of high wear performance in rayon staple fabrics ivith crease-resistant finishes is discussed by BestGordon and Morton (3). They describe methods of applying these creaseresisting finishes and of evaluating their performance. Recent developmenu in cotton finishing have been reviened by Gantz (23). IVet processing operations in bleaching, dyeing, or printing are considered by him, as they affect subsequent finishing treatment. One Eype of finish is designed to modify the hand or appearance of fabrics such as softness, luster, and sheerness. second type of finish is designed to provide some performance characteristics such as resistance to abrasion, shrinkage, mildew, rain, fire, or \\.rinkling. Basic chemical modifications of cotton are alsa briefly mentioned. Strauss (87) discusses glass finishes for reinforced plastics. He states that the S a v a l Ordinance Laboratory has developed a series of halosilane finishes especially designed to react with epoxies, phenolic, and polyester resins. One of these, N.O.L. 24, a product of the reaction bettveen equal molar amounts of allyltrichlorosilane and resorcinol, can now be used to treat glass fibers on a commercial basis. Previously published data sho\\.ed that epoxy and phenolic laminates utilizing N.O.L. 24 finish have flexual strengths, dry and wet, about 15 to 20yo higher than comparable laminates made with T’ol. A .
Industrial Dermatitis Skin troubles and fiber production (74) are discussed and the incidence of
“The wide spectrum of properties provided by present-day fibers permits significantly increased service and varied uses in the chemical process industry. Chemical resistance, heat resistance, high modulus, and dimensional stability have helped provide extended applications in tanks, piping, hoses, reinforcement for rubber and plastics, conveyor and power transmitters, and in coated fabrics. The introduction o f fibers having a wide range of properties illustrates increased service to aid in the growth of that segment of the chemical industry which itself has substantially contributed to advancement in the textile fiber field.” K. C. Loughlin Vice President and General Manager Textile Division Celanese Corp. of America
FIBERS such troubles incurred
during fiber production are defined. Methods of preventing dermatitis for the various hazards involved are described.
Annotated Bibliography ( 1 A ) Airoldi, Rino, A n n . Chitn. ( R o m e ) 45, 517-25 (1955). The characteristics of chamois leathers for polishing and filtering. (2.4) Anders, Heinz, Textil-Praxis 9,174-5 (1954). Behavior of Perlon toward chemical agents. (3’4) Baier, H., Melliand Textilber. 36, 261-5 (1955). Effect of acids on cotton and rayon. (4.4) Bandyopadhyay, S. B., Xlukhopadhyay, S. K.? Textile Research f.25, 967-8 (1933). Correlation of physical properties of jute yarn with chemical characteristics of the fiber. ( 5 A ) Barnard, i V . S., Palm, A , Stam, P. B., Underwood, D. L., \\-bite, H . J., Jr., Zbid., 24, 863-81 (1954). Interaction of hair fibers with alkali bromide solutions. (6A) Boasson, E. H., Scheers, H . J. H . , J . Polymer Sei. 17, 311-14 (1955). Some properties of undrawn nylon 6 yarn. (7‘4) Bohringer, I. Hans, Textil-Praxis I O , 751-8 (1955). Discussion of properties and characteristics which determine the use-value of synthetic fibers. ( 8 A ) Brezinski, J. P., T a p p i 39, 116-28 (1956). The creep properties of DaDer. (9A) Broicn, Alexander, T e i t i l e Reseaich J . 25, 617-28 ( 1 9 5 5 ’ . The mechanical properties of fibers. Correlation of fiber properties with fabric properties and correlation of molecular and intermolecular structure with fiber properties. (10Aj Brown, J. J., Rusca, R . X.: Ibid., 25, 472-6 (1955). Effect of fabric structure on fabric properties. (11X) Cross, J. hf., Mayhew, R . L. (to General Aniline 8: Film Corp.), C . S. Patent 2,692,837 (Oct. 26, 1954). Composition and process for rendering textile fabrics water repellent. (12.A) Cross, J. M., Mayhew, R . L. (to General .4niline & Film Corp.) Zbid., 2,693,430 (Nov. 2: 1954). Process for rendering textile materials Lvater repellent. (13.4) Cruise, A . J., J . Sod. Leather Tradrs’ Chemists 39, 252-62 (1955). Structure and deformation of collagen fibers. Plastic and elastic deformation under pressure. (14A) Doser, Arnold (to Farbenfabriken Bayer Aktiengesellschaft), U. S. Patent 2,708,642 (May 17, 1955). Process for imparting water repellancy to textiles. ( l 5 A ) Duane, Donald (to National Lead Co.) Ibid., 2,728,680 (Dec. 27, 1955). Flame-retarding agent for fibrous cellulosic materials. (16A) Earland, C., f. SOC.Dyers Colourirts 71, 89-96 (1955). The mechanism of some reactions between N-halogenoamines and wool. (17A) Fetscher, C. A. (to Cluett, Peahody & Go.: Inc.), U. S. Patent 2,704,729 (March 22, 1955). Felting-
-
I
I
~~
resistant treatment for woolen materials. Gilfillan, E. S., Linden, Leo, Textile Research f. 25, 773-7 (1955). Effect of nuclear radiation on yarn strength. Gillespie, T., J . Colloid Sei. I O , 299314 (1955). The role of electric forces in the filtration of aerosols by fiber filters. Goglia, M. J., LaVier, H . W. S., Brown, C. D., Textile Research f. 25. 296-313 (1955). Air permeability of parachute cloths.’ Grant, J. N., Ibid., 26, 74-80 (1956). Certain physical properties of selected samples of chemically modified cottons. Guthrie, J. D., Drake, G. L., Reeves, LVilson, A m . Uyestuj Reptr. 44, 328-32 (1955). Tetrakis (hydroxymethy1)phosphoniiim chloride, (HOCH2)4PCl, used in a process to impart flame resistance to cotton fabrics. (23.4) Hamalainen. Carl, Guthrie, J. D., Textiie Research J . 26, 141-4 (1956). Bromine-containing phosphonitrilates as flame retardants for cotton. Hamalainen, Carl, Reeves, W. A , Guthrie, J. D., Zbid., 26, 145-9 (1956). Cotton made flame-resistant with bromine-containing phosphonitrilates in combination with T H P C resins. (25A) Harris, hfilton, Mark, Hermann, .Vatural and Synthetic Fibers, Interscience, iX. 1’. A monthly abstract service giving long abstracts. Classified according to an extensive classification scheme. (26.4) Hessler, L. E., Upton, D. J., Textile Resenrch J . 25, 1029-34 (1955). Chemical properties of field\\eathered cotton. (27.4) Innes, R . F., Mitton, R . G., J . Soc. Leather Trades’ Chemists 39, 225-35 (1955). Durability of leather from split hides. (28.A) International LL’ool Secretariat, I l b o l Science Rev., No. 14, 27-38 (1955). Physical properties of wool fibers. (29.A) Ishika\ca, Kinzo, Suzuki, hfineo, J . SOC. Textile and Cellulose Ind. ( J a p a n ) 11, 38-43 (1955). hfechanical behavior of poly(viny1idene chloride) fibers. (30.1) Ivarsson, B. LV., Tappi 39, 97-104 (1956). Compression of cellulose fiber sheets, deformation curves. (31.4) Kenaga, D. L., Erbel, A . J. (to DOTVChemical Co.), U. S. Patent 2,725,311 (Nov. 29, 1955). Flameproofing of cellulosic materials. (32‘4) Kirby, R. D., Rutherford, H . .4., Textile Research f. 25, 569-70 (1955). Effect of nuclear radiation on wool fiber. (33.4) Koch, P. A,: Teintex 20, 775-6, 779, 780-1, 785. 787 (1955). Polv(vinyl chloride) fibers and threads. ( 3 4 4 ) Koch, P. A , , Textil-Rundschau IO, 486-90 (1955); Z . ges. Tewtil Znd. 57,757-60 (1955). History, preparation, properties, and applications of Dyne1 and the related Vinyon fibers. Konnerth, C., Industria usoara 2, 298-303 (1955). Effect of repeated wettings on properties of leather. Landells, G., Whewell, C. S., f. SOC.Dyers Colourists 71, 171-4
(44A) (45A)
(46.4)
(52.4) (53A) (54.4)
(57.4)
(1955). The preparation and properties of regenerated cellulose containing vinyl polymers. Staining, swelling, and stiffness characteristics. Leatherland, L. C., Fibres--Nut. arid Synthet. 16, N o . 10, 348-9, 367 (1955). lmproving natural fibers. Lemiszka, T., iVhitwel1, J . C., T e x tile Research f. 25, 947-55 (1955). Stress-relauation behavior of synthetic and cellulosic textile fibers in distilled water and hydrochloric acid. Lord, E., J . Textile Znd. 46, T191212 (1955). Air flow through plugs of textile fibers. McGill, A , , h’ild, H., Textile J . Australia 29, 274-8 (1954). The use of acetate staple in blends. Summary of physical properties. McGuff, T. J., Sawyer, R. It‘., U. S.Patent 2,708,982 (May 24, 1955). Fiber filter media for gases. hfachtillan, W. G., Bhattacherjee, H . P., J . Textiie Inst. 45, T700-02 (1954). The action of light on jute. hiachfillan, W. G.: Sen Gupta, A . B., htajumdar, S. K., Zbid., 45, T703-15 (1954). A study of the action of alkalies on jute. McQuade, A. J., A m . Dyesfuff R e p . 44, 749-51 (1955). Flame resistance of military textiles. Nakanishi, Masayoshi, Kobayashi, Kei, J . SOC.Textile and Ceilulwe Znd. ( J a p a n ) IO, 128-30 (1954). Disintegration of silk fihroin by sunligh’t. Nicholls, C. H., Speakman, J . B., J . Teytile Inst. 46, T264-9 (1955). .kdsorption of primary alcohols by wool. Nissan, A . H., T a p p i 39,93-7 (1956). The rheological properties of rrllulose sheets. _. . Okamurd. Isao, Cherntstry and Chetn. Znd. ( J a p m ) 8, 277-82 (1955). HiSh trnacity rayon. Olof,son, B., J . SOC.Djms Colourists 72. 19 -23 (1956). The combination of wool with acids. Pctterson, I). R., Ness I . S. (to Chicopee Manufacturing Corp.), U. S. Patent 2,705,687 (April 5, 1955). X‘onwoiren fabric and method of producing same. Rance, H. I?., T a p p i 39, 104-15 (1956). Formulation of methods and objectives appropriate to rheological study of paper. Refson, B. H., Chem. Products 18, 467-71 (1955). Filtration, filters, and filter-media. Refson, B. H., Zbid., 19, 17-20 (1956). Filtration, filters, and filter-media. Reid, J. i3.,Frick: J. G., Jr., Xrceneaux, R . L., Textile Revarch J . 26, 137-40 (1956). A compounded flame retardant for cotton fabrics. Reid, J. D., Ibid., 26, 136 (19563. Review of three recent developments in flame-retardant treatments for cotton. de Riz, Otto, Schuller, Erhard, Faserjorsch. u . Textiltech. 6, 152-7 (1955). The hygroscopic behavior of Perlon fibers. Rose, G. R . F., Bayley, C. H., A m . Dyestuff Reptr. 44, 648-51, 676 (1955). ‘The rotproofing and weathering properties of some
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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION compounds of dehydroabiethylamine. (58A) Roseveare, W. E., Poore, Louise, Textile Research J . 25, 709-14 (1955). Retractive force, coefficient of thermal expansion, and modulus for cellulose fibers. (59.4) Sarkar, P. B., hfazumdar, A . K., Zbid., 25, 1016-20 (1955). The chemistry ofjute fiber. (60A) Schefer, Llrarner, Textil-Rundschau 10, 279-96, 365-74, 423-7 (1955). Physical-chemical behavior of synthetic polyamide fibers. (61.4) Schuyter, H . A , Ll’eaver, J. \\-., Reid, J. D., 1x11. ENG.CHEX 47, 1433-9 (1955). Effect of flameproofing agents on cotton cellulose. (62‘4) Silverman: Leslie: Conners, E. LY., Jr., Anderson, D. SI., Zbid., 47, 952-60, correction p. 1604 (1955 I . hfechanical electrostatic charging of fabrics for air filters. (63.A) Simoncini, Enrico, Cuoio, pelli, mat. concianti 31, 263-78 (1955). Some less known properties of leather. (64.4) Skalkeas, B. G. (to U.S.A. as represented by Secy. of hgricultiire;, U. S. Patent 2,724,657 (Nov. 22, 1955). Breaking strength of textile fibers can be increased by impregnating a twisted strand with a colloidal 1 to 3070 aqueous dispersion of silica and subjecting to further treatment. (65‘4) Snyder, C. X., Pring, R. T., TND. ESG. CHEM. 47, 960-6 (1955). Design considerations in filtration of hot gases with cloth filters. (66.4) Spielrein, R . E., Brady, C. J., Australian J . ,4ppl. Sci. 5, 418-27 (1954). Resistance to fungal attack of various fibers. (67A) Steele, Richard, Giddings, L. E., Jr., Textile Research J . 26, 116-23 (1956). The mechanical properties of cellulose fabrics treated with (hydroxymethy1)- and bis(hydrosymethyl) ureas. (68A) Stehlik, Antonin, Ceskoslou. kozarstzi 3, 84-5 (1953). The absorption of water by leather. (69.4) Stutz, H., Melliand Textilber. 36, 561-6 (1955). A general review on the effects of adding Perlon to cellulosic fibers. (70A) Susich, G., Vadala, E. T., Textile Research J . 24, 817-32 (1955). Tensile properties of man-made and svnthetic staple yarns. (71A) Tancous, J . J., J . Am. Leather Chemists’ Assoc. 50, 274-8 (1955). Coefficient of friction (static) for glove materials on an automobile steering \vheel. (72.4) Textile 1l.orld. 105, 82 (1955). Xrnel-a cellulose triacetate fiber. Tabulation of properties. (73.4) Ft-ard, F., J . Soc. Dyers Colourists 71, 569-78 (1955). Flameproofing of textiles. ( 7 4 A ) Ward, G. R . , Am. Q e s t u f f Reptr., Proc. Am. Assoc. Textile Chem. Colorists 44, 220-6 (1955). .Antistatic action cs. molecular structure on fibers. (75.1) LYarzee, M.,Quintelier, G., J . Textile Inst. 46, 123-36 (1955). Effect of finish on tire yarns. Torque-twist curves. (76:4) ivoodside, L. ?* Tappi I.,39, 24-6 (1956). Recent developments in the use of chemical treatments and synthetic fibers in paper machine felts.
1730
( 7 7 4 ) Zahn, I%,, Ll-urz, A , , .\lrlliand Textdber. 36, 121-8 (1955). Preparation and properties of modified wools with improved microbiological resistance. (78.4) Zahn, Helmut, Wurz, Albrech, Textile Research J . 25, 111-14 (1955): Preparation of microbiologically resistant \vool by chemical modification. Reaction with monofunctional compounds.
literature Cited ( 1 ) Am. Tmtile Rfptr. (Jul>-14. 135.5 I . ( 2 ) Banner. Harry, Daily .\its Record, See. 2: p. 14. April 5. 1956. ( 3 ) Best-Gordon, H . IV.. 5Zorton. T, H.. J . Soc. D&rs Colouiists 71, KO,13:
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