Identifying New Persistent and Bioaccumulative Organics Among

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Identifying New Persistent and Bioaccumulative Organics Among Chemicals in Commerce II: Pharmaceuticals Philip H. Howard*,† and Derek C. G. Muir‡ † ‡

SRC, Inc. Chemical, Biological, and Environmental Center (CBEC), 7502 Round Pond Road, North Syracuse, New York, and Aquatic Ecosystem Protection Research Division, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario

bS Supporting Information ABSTRACT: The goal of this study was to identify commercial pharmaceuticals that might be persistent and bioaccumulative (P&B) and that were not being considered in current wastewater and aquatic environmental measurement programs. We developed a database of 3193 pharmaceuticals from two U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) databases and some lists of top ranked or selling drugs. Of the 3193 pharmaceuticals, 275 pharmaceuticals have been found in the environment and 399 pharmaceuticals were, based upon production volumes, designated as high production volume (HPV) pharmaceuticals. All pharmaceuticals that had reported chemical structures were evaluated for potential bioaccumulation (B) or persistence (P) using quantitative structure property relationships (QSPR) or scientific judgment. Of the 275 drugs detected in the environment, 92 were rated as potentially bioaccumulative, 121 were rated as potentially persistent, and 99 were HPV pharmaceuticals. After removing the 275 pharmaceuticals previously detected in the environment, 58 HPV compounds were identified that were both P&B and 48 were identified as P only. Of the non-HPV compounds, 364 pharmaceuticals were identified that were P&B. This study has yielded some interesting and probable P&B pharmaceuticals that should be considered for further study.

’ INTRODUCTION In 2006, we published a paper1 challenging environmental chemists to start looking for new persistent and bioaccumulative (P&B) chemicals. In 2010, we published an additional paper2 identifying 610 compounds that are potential P&B chemicals from a list of 22 000 commercial chemicals from the Canadian Domestic Substances List (DSL) or from the Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) with reported production ranges in 1986, 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002, and 2006 under the Inventory Update Rule (IUR). Our motivation was that analytical chemists would be more successful in identifying new P&B chemicals if they knew what they were looking for and several successes have been noted in the latter paper.2 The screening of thousands of chemicals has become possible due to the developments in Quantitative Structure Property Relationships (QSPRs) and the availability of large chemical structural databases. The approach we used to identify the 610 commercial organic chemicals relied on QSPR, expert scientific judgment, and several large databases that had production volume information on the chemicals being considered. Unfortunately, there are no large chemical structural databases with production volume information for pharmaceuticals so a different approach was necessary in addition to using QSPR and expert scientific judgment. Pharmaceuticals are different from general commercial chemicals in that they are designed to have biological effects and r 2011 American Chemical Society

be bioavailable.3 Their release to the environment varies depending upon their application. The major release of veterinary medicines is believed to be through emissions to soil and surface waters from intensive livestock treatments and aquaculture.4 The major release of human-use pharmaceuticals is from discharge to sewage treatment plants and septic systems of the pharmaceutical and its metabolites after use;5 the amount reaching the environment varies by the amount metabolized during use (90%),3 removal during sewage treatment, amount adsorbed to sewage sludge and recycled as fertilizer on soil, and amount coming to sewage treatment plants from manufacturing facilities and hospitals.3 Several investigators have evaluated the thousands of available pharmaceuticals based upon varying criteria mostly focusing on relative risk. Sanderson et al.6 developed a prioritization environmental risk assessment tool that they applied to approximately 3000 pharmaceuticals based on (1) their predicted aquatic toxicity using Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships (QSARs); (2) predicted removal in sewage treatment plants; (3) predicted potential to bioaccumulate; and (4) number of compounds in each use class. Kools and co-workers7 ranked 741 veterinary medicines Received: April 8, 2011 Accepted: July 8, 2011 Revised: July 7, 2011 Published: July 08, 2011 6938

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Environmental Science & Technology registered in the European Union using four phases: (1) usage estimation; (2) characterization of exposure to soil, dung, surface water, and aquatic organisms depending on exposure scenarios; (3) characterization of ecotoxic effects based on therapeutical doses; and (4) risk characterization, which is the ratio of exposure to effects (risk index), and ranking. If past experience is used as a guide chemicals become new emerging contaminants because of widespread detection, biomagnification, evidence for increasing trends, and high persistence, and not because much is known about their toxicity. Indeed, as noted above, of the three previous risk-based prioritizations, one used QSAR ecotoxicity values and the other two relied on therapeutic doses because of the lack of toxicity information. For some pharmaceuticals the therapeutic dose may be relevant to toxic effect in the environment especially if the effect takes place at very low concentrations (e.g., estrogenic activity and endocrine disruption effects), but most therapeutic doses for drugs (e.g., anti-inflammatory, antibiotics, beta-blockers, lipid regulators) provide little insight to carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and reproductive and developmental effects. Even after a group of chemicals is detected in the environment, there still is a limited amount of toxicity information as illustrated by the fact that despite widespread detection of pharmaceuticals in surface waters and in biosolids,3 there is a major lack of chronic ecotoxicity data to assess impacts of pharmaceuticals in aquatic and terrestrial environments.6,8 Most human and veterinary pharmaceuticals go through wastewater treatment3,5 or land disposal4 for which biodegradation will be the determining process for persistence. Pharmaceuticals generally are not designed to bioaccumulate, but there are many drugs that are lipid soluble and therefore potentially bioaccumulative in the environment and this would be particularly important for pharmaceuticals that may have ecotoxicological effects or have human exposure through food (e.g., fish). Current guidelines require environmental fate and effects analysis if concentrations in surface waters are predicted to exceed 10 ng/L in Europe9 and g1 μg/L in WWTP effluent in the U.S.10 For the above reasons, we have focused our prioritization on pharmaceuticals that appear to be P&B chemicals to give analytical chemists targets for new emerging contaminants.

’ METHODS Development of Database of Commercial Pharmaceuticals. A list of commercial pharmaceuticals was developed by

collecting approximately 2700 drugs identified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)11 (this FDA database and the veterinarian database discussed below include prescription and over-the-counter drugs approved for sale as well as discontinued drugs; they do not include metabolites, dietary supplements, or drugs not approved by FDA or sold outside the U.S.) and combining it with chemicals that have significant production and use (suggest greater potential for release to the environment). We included a list of drugs in the Top 300 Rx Prescriptions from the 2005 database, available from RxList12 (as of February 2, 2010 the present Web site only lists 200 drugs). Of the Top 300, 250 were individual organic chemicals that could be added to the database. Also included was a list of the Top 200 bestselling drugs obtained from Wikipedia13 which is from MedAdNews 200 World’s Best-Selling Medicines.14 Both the order of sales (highest to lowest) and the millions of dollars in sales for 2006 were captured for 198 drugs. Also added was the

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volume of 29 pharmaceuticals sold in France (kg/yr in 2004), UK (kg/yr in 2004), and Spain (kg/yr in 2003) reported in Monteiro and Boxall.3 In addition, the Top 10 prescribed and Top 10 selling pharmaceuticals were identified in a report prepared for The Kaiser Family Foundation.15 In addition, a list of 375 veterinary drugs regulated by the U.S. FDA Center for Veterinarian Medicine16 was also included. This added 165 new drugs (210 drugs were both human and veterinary drugs) for a total of 3193 drugs in the database. Also added were chemicals that were identified as pharmaceuticals in the Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB)17 (noted as HSDB Drug List in the comment field). Corresponding two-dimensional structure and simplified molecular input line entry specification (SMILES) notations were obtained from the National Library of Medicine ChemIDplus database.18 All relevant drugs available from the sources cited above were added to a substructure searchable database using ISIS/Base chemical software.19 Pharmaceuticals were entered into the database using the CAS Registry Number (CASRN) as the unique identifier. A total of 3193 were entered into the database having the following fields where the data were available or could be estimated from the structure using EPI Suite software:20 CASRN; chemical name; chemical structure; chemical formula; molecular weight; SMILES notation; KOWWIN estimated log octanol water partition coefficient (log Kow) (in many instances both the dissociated and undissociated form of pharmaceuticals was estimated); experimental log Kow; log bioconcentration factor (BCF, from the BCFBAF program); three biodegradation estimates from the BIOWIN program; an indication of whether the pharmaceutical had already been detected in the environment; comment field for informational notations for individual pharmaceuticals (Top 300 selling pharmaceuticals were noted in the comment field); rank order of sales for 2006; millions of dollars of sales for 2006; companies producing the drug; and medical use. A total of 275 pharmaceuticals in the database (and/or their metabolites) have been detected in environmental media (discussed in the Supporting Information (SI) and presented in Table S-1). Also, 10 pharmaceuticals have been detected in environmental media but are not in the database (see Table S-2); these chemicals may be registered in countries other than the U. S. and European Union. Structures were collected for 2584 chemicals in the database. Most of these drug structures that are not in the database are various naturally occurring substances such as insulin or venom isolates as well as therapeutic biologicals. Estimates of drugs without structures were not possible because the structure is necessary for EPI Suite software to work. Many of the drugs in the U.S. FDA list include free acids or bases as well as a number of salts of the parent drug. For example, there are five forms of metoprolol, a highly used beta-blocker (see SI, Table S-3).

’ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Selection of Potential Persistent (P) and Bioaccumulative (B) Pharmaceuticals. All of the pharmaceuticals in the database

were individually examined to see if they had the potential for being persistent (P) and/or bioaccumulative (B). All the pharmaceuticals with the exception of some inorganics and metal compounds had estimated, and in some cases measured, octanol/ water partition coefficients—the estimated values were provided by the KOWWIN program from the EPI Suite software.20 6939

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Environmental Science & Technology For pharmaceuticals that had log Kow values of approximately 3 or more, the chemical was marked as potentially B. Under the proposed rule for persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) chemicals,21 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) has established a BCF range of >100 and 6. A more detailed discussion of BCF/BAF criteria is provided by Gobas and co-workers.22 Each pharmaceutical was marked as potentially persistent if (1) the BIOWIN1 or BIOWWIN5 models from EPI Suite were less than 0.5 (50% probability that biodegradation will not be fast); or (2) scientific judgment of the chemical structure identified a number of substructures that suggest persistence using the approaches of Tunkel et al.23 (e.g., persistent: highly halogenated, highly branched, nitroaromatic; biodegradable: straight-chain aliphatic compounds, esters, acids, hydroxyl functional groups). Generally pharmaceuticals with carboxylic ester functions were not give a P category unless the remaining acid appeared to be persistent (halogenated substituted, highly branched, etc.). The table of the 275 drugs detected in the environment (see Table S-1) was then examined to see if there were some properties of the pharmaceuticals that could be used to predict which other drugs may be detected in the environment. Table S-1 also included information on commercial use to see if the sales or production quantity correlated with detection in the environment. Of the 275 drugs detected in the environment, 92 were rated as potentially bioaccumulative, 121 were rated as potentially persistent, and 99 were high production volume (HPV) pharmaceuticals. HPV pharmaceuticals were either in the Top 200 pharmaceuticals in 2006 or Top 300 pharmaceuticals in 2005 or had reported production quantities in Europe.3 They are the combination of the Top 200 (198 compounds—two did not have structures that could be drawn and were left out), the Top 300 (258 compounds—the rest of the drugs were not discrete organics), and the 29 drugs with European production in France, UK, and Spain—for a total of 399 compounds (there is some overlap of chemicals within the various lists). Interestingly, 8 of the 275 chemicals were “cycline” derivatives, all of which had very low log Kow values but were predicted to be persistent—not surprising considering the four fused rings (persistent),23 but they do have several functional groups that tend to make compounds biodegradable (acids, alcohols).23 Of the 399 HPV compounds, 102 compounds have already been detected in the environment (see HPV notation as indicated in Table S-1) and these were removed from the next series of searches. The remaining 297 HPV compounds were searched for pharmaceuticals that had both P and B codes—58 compounds were found and listed in Table 1. These pharmaceuticals have the highest potential for being the next emerging

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pharmaceutical contaminants since they are produced in large quantities and are potentially persistent and bioaccumulative. The remaining 238 HPV compounds were then searched for chemicals that were P but not B—these 48 compounds were also listed in Table 1. These 48 compounds have lower potential to be emerging pharmaceutical contaminants; however, they are potentially persistent and produced in large quantities. The CASRN and names of these 106 pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 1; their structures are listed in the Supporting Information (Table S-4). This leaves 2621 pharmaceuticals that are not HPV chemicals (399) nor already detected in environmental media (275 chemicals). This list of pharmaceuticals was searched to identify which ones were both P&B chemicals. Table S-5 in the Supporting Information lists the 364 chemicals in this category. These compounds also have the potential of being new emerging pharmaceutical contaminants since they are potentially P&B, but their commercial importance is unknown. Of the 106 pharmaceuticals in Table 1, some appear to have high priority for examination. Meclizine is a HPV antihistamine that looks particularly persistent (two tertiary amines, several aromatic, and one cyclic ring) and has a high log Kow (5.87) which would suggest a BCF greater than 3000. Amiodarone is an antiarrhythmic agent that has a high estimated log Kow (8.81) and BCF (1800) and has a diiodo substituted benzene ring (which suggests persistence) and is similar to the two iodinated X-ray contrast media chemicals in Table S-2 that have been detected in environmental media but are not in the U.S. FDA databases; in fact, because the database is substructure searchable, we were able to easily identify 45 chemicals in the total database that have di- or triiodo substituted benzene rings. One of these is Levothyroxine (thyroxine), a pharmaceutical used for hypothyroidism, and is one of the Top 10 selling medications—it has recently been detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent24 (see Table S-1). It is one of the few pharmaceuticals that are a high priority from other previous studies (see next section, Comparison to Other Studies). The bicyclic structure of memantine, which is used for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, appears particularly persistent to microbial pathways, although the log Kow (3.34) is not particularly high. Eleven of the pharmaceuticals in Table 1 have seven member rings which are not well understood in terms of their contribution to persistence23 and would suggest the need for biodegradation studies. In fact, the environmental biodegradation of most of the selected pharmaceuticals is not well characterized. In an initial literature search conducted in 2009, we found 230 pharmaceuticals that had been detected in environmental media. Thus, the 45 pharmaceuticals that have been newly detected in the past few years indicate that this area of research is receiving considerable attention. Of these new emerging contaminant pharmaceuticals, 36 out of 45 were rated as P and 23 out of 45 were rated as B. This high percentage of P&B assessments for the newly identified pharmaceuticals provides support for our approach being used for selection. Back in 2009 none of the erectile dysfunction drugs; sildenafil, vardenafil, and tadalafil (active agents of Viagra, Levitra, and Cialis, respectively) had been detected even though we had selected them as HPV P&B or P pharmaceuticals. Recently Nieto et al.25 have detected these in wastewater or sewage sludge in Spain. In selecting potential P&B pharmaceuticals, focus was placed on chemicals whose whole structure or part of the structure would be persistent. For chemicals for which only part of the 6940

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Table 1. High Production Volume Pharmaceuticals That Have Not Been Detected in the Environment but are Estimated to be Persistent and/or Bioaccumulativea ID

name

Bb

KOWWINc

Pb

BIOWIN1d

BIOWIN5e

commentb

000058-33-3

Promethazine DM

x

2.97

x

0.3895

0.2709

Top 300

000060-87-7 000068-88-2

Promethazine Hydroxyzine

x x

4.49 2.36

x x

0.2016 0.0844

0.238 0.0633

Top 300 Top 300

000077-19-0

Dicyclomine

x

6.05

x

0.3852

0.5261

Top 300; ester might

000086-13-5

Benztropine

x

4.28

x

0.3047

0.0968

Top 300

000118-42-3

Hydroxychloroquine

x

3.03

x

0.1249

0.0746

Top 300

000846-49-1

Lorazepam

x

3.91

x

0.5982

0.114

Top 300; seven member

001095-90-5

Methadose

x

1.4

x

0.6619

0.0089

Top 300; free amine KOWWIN 4.17,

001951-25-3

Amiodarone

x

8.81

x

0.9803

1.4563

Top 300

002192-20-3

Vistaril

x

2.68

x

0.2914

0.1199

Top 300; free amine

006202-23-9

Cyclobenzaprine HCl

x

2.02

x

0.5991

0.0961

Top 300; look P, free

019794-93-5 028981-97-7

Trazodone Alprazolam

x x

3.21 3.87

x x

0.0224 0.6009

0.2729 0.1488

Top 300 Top 300

041340-25-4

Etodolac

x

3.93

x

0.2615

0.1401

Top 300

058581-89-8

Astelin

x

5.72

x

0.2327

0.3812

Top 300

061337-67-5

Mirtazapine

x

3.03

x

0.1108

0.2288

Top 300

071125-38-7

Meloxicam

x

3.5

x

1.0038

0.0375

Top 300; BIOWIN5 - P

rank 2006b

sales 2006b

130

818

metabolize - P?

ring looks P

BIOWIN1 0.47

KOWWIN 3.55 (Flexeril)

amine KOWWIN is 4.79

- amide may degrade 078246-49-8

Paxil CR

x

2.89

x

0.2138

0.4061

Top 300; log Kow slightly low for B; free amine KOWWIN 4.74

078628-80-5

Tervinafine hydrochloride

x

3.04

x

0.4075

0.1397

(Lamisil)

Top 300; P questionable with olefin and acetylenic functional groups

082640-04-8

Raloxifenehydrochloride

x

4.57

x

0.8751

0.0852

Top 300; BIOWIN5 - P

083919-23-7

Nasonex

x

3.38

x

0.1126

0.3964

Top 300; ester maybe

093479-97-1

Glimepiride (Amaryl)

x

4.7

x

0.5686

0.5467

degrade to alcohol Top 300; BIOWIN5 - P

165

567

093957-54-1

Fluvastatin sodium

x

4.85

x

0.1318

0.0346

Top 300; BIOWIN - P

141

725

158

619

50

1900

8

4364

35 54

2372 1768

(Evista)

(Lescol XL) 098319-26-7

Finasteride (Proscar)

x

3.2

x

0.4387

0.2549

Top 300

099294-93-6

Zolpidem tartrate

x

3.85

x

0.97

0.0098

Top 300; might be P,

124750-99-8

Losartan potassium

x

3.01

x

0.6856

0.3808

Top 300

124937-52-6

(Cozaar) Tolterodine tartrate

x

5.73

x

0.7406

0.1802

Top 300; tolterodine might

(Ambien)

BIOWIN5 - zolpidem

(Detrol LA)

be P but has a phenol

129722-12-9

Abilify

x

5.3

x

0.1554

0.1674

Top 300

132539-06-1

Olanzapine (Zyprexa)

x

2.56

x

0.2145

0.298

Top 300; Top 10 Sales; log Kow a little low

137071-32-0

Elidel (Pimecrolimus)

x

4.39

x

0.7732

0.4309

Top 300; P? ester, lots of

138402-11-6 139481-59-7

Irbesartan (Avapro) Candesartan cilexetil

x x

5.31 4.79

x x

0.6782 0.8466

0.1309 0.0585

Top 300 Top 300; P? BIOWIN5

OH, but highly branched

(Atacand)

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Table 1. Continued ID

name

Bb

KOWWINc

Pb

BIOWIN1d

BIOWIN5e

commentb

144689-63-4

Benicar

x

3.29

x

0.5265

0.4835

Top 300; not P ester, t-butyl alcohol

151767-02-1

Montelukast sodium

x

5.71

x

0.0456

0.4669

Top 300

x

3.19

x

0.4

rank 2006b

sales 2006b

73

1370

(Singulair) 155141-29-0

Rosiglitazone maleate

Top 300

(Avandia) 163222-33-1

Ezetimibe (Zetia)

x

3.94

x

0.5827

0.0712

Top 300

48

1929

169590-42-5

Celecoxib capsules

x

3.47

x

0.1002

0.2549

Top 300

44

2039

191114-48-4

(Celebrex) Tulathromycin

x

4.08

x

0.9827

0.5082

Top 300

219861-08-2

Lexapro (Escitalopram

x

3.74

x

0.64

0.03

Top 300

224789-15-5

Levitra

x

3.78

x

0.9316

0.407

444313-53-5

Vytorin (Ezetimibe mixture

x

3.94

x

0.58

47

1955

oxalate) Top 300 Top 300; ezetimibe - log Kow

with Simvastatin)

and BIOWIN

067392-87-4

Yasmin

x

4.02

x

0.2023

0.538

P? has an ester but quat Cs

082626-48-0 084449-90-1

Zolpidem Raloxifene

x x

3.85 6.09

x x

0.9754 0.6872

0.0098 0.0523

BIOWIN5 suggests P

106

998

31 91

2545 1159

091374-21-9

Ropinirole

x

3.03

x

0.7378

0.1405

BIOWIN5 - P

188

496

099614-02-5

Ondansetron

x

3.95

x

0.724

0.0742

P? BIOWIN5

62

1567 1499

104987-11-3

Tacrolimus

x

3.03

x

0.5

0.2336

Perhaps not P - ester

66

111025-46-8

Pioglitazone

x

3.96

x

0.7192

0.2338

BIOWIN5 - P

24

2880

114798-26-4

Losartan

x

4.01

x

0.6856

0.3808

19

3163

122320-73-4

Avandia, Avandamet,

x

3.19

x

0.4041

0.1526

23

3043

124937-51-5

Avandaryl Tolterodine

x

5.73

x

0.7406

0.1802

96

1100

128196-01-0

Escitalopram

x

3.74

x

0.6464

0.0288

29

2696

146939-27-7

Ziprasidone

x

3.6

x

0.2775

0.487

138

758

147536-97-8

Tracleer

x

3.06

x

0.8555

0.0764

145

717

152459-95-5

Imatinib

x

3.01

x

0.0215

0.8187

30

2554

HSDB Drug List

154598-52-4

Efavirenz

x

4.69

x

0.21

0.068

158966-92-8

Singulair

x

9.52

x

0.0456

0.4669

P? Carbamate may biodegrade

161973-10-0

Nexium (Esomeprazole magnesium)

x

3.4

x

0.8

0.1

Top 10 Sales; KOWWIN and BIOWIN for Esomeprazole

000050-06-6

Phenobarbital

1.33

x

0.5811

0.1798

Top 300

000059-30-3

Folic acid

2.81

x

0.4254

0.3939

Top 300

000077-36-1

Chlorthalidone

1.01

x

0.4301

0.0377

Top 300 Top 300

135

791

15

3579

4

5182

- P - BIOWIN5

000094-78-0

Phenazopyridine

2.77

x

0.0898

0.2595

000364-62-5

Metoclopramide

1.69

x

0.3254

0.1211

Top 300

000396-01-0 001622-61-3

Triamterene Clonazepam

0.8 2.53

x x

0.0538 0.3199

0.4733 0.2047

Top 300 Top 300

004205-90-7

Clonidine

1.89

x

0.2732

0.1041

Top 300

018472-51-0

Chlorhexidine

0.33

x

0.3748

0.6728

Top 300; chlorhexidine - maybe P; log Kow is 0.35;

gluconate

BIOWIN1 is 031677-93-7

Wellbutrin SR

036505-84-7 041100-52-1

Buspirone Namenda

0.33

0.75

x

0.2565

0.0565

Top 300

2.31 0.15

x x

0.0304 0.093

0.1172 0.3954

Top 300 Top 300; log Kow is for

(Budeprion SR)

N+HHH, free amine is 3.34 - could be B 051322-75-9

Tizanidine

1.07

x

0.2096

0.1442

Top 300

059803-98-4

Alphagan P

0.58

x

0.2644

0.0756

Top 300

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Table 1. Continued ID

name

063590-64-7 079559-97-0

Terazosin Sertraline hydrochloride

080474-14-2

Flonase

Bb

KOWWINc

Pb

BIOWIN1d

BIOWIN5e

commentb

1.47 2.18

x x

0.2507 0.2742

0.0033 0.2264

Top 300 Top 300; Top 10 Sales

2.49

x

0.1133

0.4086

Top 300; P questionable

rank 2006b

sales 2006b

84

1219

1843

(Zoloft) - ester and thioester, but two F’s 084057-84-1

Lamictal

0.99

x

0.2067

0.3281

Top 300

51

086386-73-4

Fluconazole

0.25

x

1.2022

0.0597

Top 300

196

435

097240-79-4

Topamax

0.33

x

1.7026

0.0209

Top 300; not stable under acid conditions O C O

45

2027

103628-48-4

Sumatriptan succinate

1.05

x

0.45

0.28

Top 300; see CASRN

42

2049

197

433

133

799

unstable in acid (Imitrex)

103628-46-2; KOWWIN and BIOWIN for Sumatriptan

111974-72-2

Quetiapine fumarate

1.94

x

0.1711

Top 300

112529-15-4

(Seroquel) Pioglitazone hydrochloride

2.11

x

0.7018

0.3516

Top 300; P questionable

(Actos) 124832-27-5

Valtrex

3.49

x

0.1688

0.1271

Top 300; P? ester

136310-93-5

Spiriva

1.76

x

0.1655

0.1379

Top 300; P? epoxide and

- P metabolite? ester, but has bicyclic ring and tertiary OH 136434-34-9 138786-67-1

Cymbalta Protonix

2.83 1.88

x x

0.7205 0.3377

0.0765 0.2148

Top 300 Top 300

161796-78-7

Esomeprazole sodium

0.7

x

0.3332

0.2065

Top 300

(Nexium) 186826-86-8

Vigamox

0.8

x

0.47

0.0678

Top 300

287714-41-4

Crestor

2.48

x

0.1531

0.165

Top 300; acid chain may biodegrade

000050-35-1

Thalidomide

0.24

x

0.6246

0.0287

HSDB Drug List; no P data in literature

028523-86-6

Sevoflurane

1.75

x

0.7359

0.2388

081403-80-7

Alfuzosin

1.86

x

0.2497

0.0671

090357-06-5

Bicalutamide

2.3

x

0.4545

0.1255

090566-53-3

Fluticasone

1.4

x

0.0342

0.1818

100286-90-6

Irinotecan

0.81

x

0.7855

0.4771

HSDB Drug List

195

443

86

1206

HSDB Drug List

164

575

P possible - several

122

903

76

1315

fused rings, but

hydrochloride

ester and carbamate functional group HSDB Drug List

103628-46-2

Sumatriptan

1.05

x

0.4563

0.2794

105102-22-5

Mometasone

2.62

x

0.242

0.3079

116

944

111974-69-7

Quetiapine

1.94

x

0.1711

0.0087

16

3560

112809-51-5

Letrozole

2.22

x

1.2257

0.0791

143

722

Two nitrile, triaryl aromatic

120511-73-1

Anastrozole

2.37

x

0.854

0.1049

P - tertiary C, nitrile

65

1508

130693-82-2

Dorzolamide

1.49

x

0.5757

0.2899

BIOWIN5 - P

148

697

137234-62-9

hydrochloride Voriconazole

1.57

x

1.978

0.1097

183

515

147127-20-6

Tenofovir

1.57

x

0.0297

0.2335

May not be P

150

689

165800-03-3

Linezolid

1.26

x

0.486

0.0888

HSDB Drug List; may not

136

782

- phosphate acid be P - carbamate 6943

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Environmental Science & Technology

ARTICLE

Table 1. Continued ID

name

Bb

KOWWINc

Pb

BIOWIN1d

BIOWIN5e

183321-74-6 186691-13-4

Erlotinib Spiriva

2.79 0.24

x x

0.1044 0.2031

0.0334 0.0968

354812-41-2

Avelox, Avalox

0.95

x

0.2988

0.0832

commentb P? ester, but bicyclic

rank 2006b

sales 2006b

155 55

649 1735

129

822

and tertiary OH a

Applies to peer-reviewed literature searched up to April 2011. b These are discussed in the Results and Discussion section. c KOWWIN: estimates the log octanol water partition coefficient (log Kow) of chemicals using an atom/fragment contribution method; a high log Kow indicates a compound will partition into organic matter rather than water. d BIOWIN1: Biodegradation Probability Program (BIOWIN) includes a linear probability model that estimates the rapid aerobic biodegradation of organic chemicals. e BIOWIN5: is the Japanese MITI (Ministry of International Trade and Industry) linear model that estimates the probability of rapid aerobic biodegradation of organic chemicals. All of the above programs are in the EPI Suite software.20

structure appears to be persistent by the “rules of thumb” for biodegradation,23 it may be desirable to use computer-aided software to predict the degradation pathways and examine the transformation products for P&B properties. This has recently been done by Kern et al. for a number of pesticides and pharmaceuticals.26,27 In addition, because of the unique way that pharmaceuticals enter the environmental (many are metabolized by humans or animals before being released), metabolites from mammalian metabolism should also be reviewed for P&B properties. Comparison to Other Studies. Although the prioritization environmental risk assessment tool by Sanderson et al.6 assessed 2986 pharmaceuticals in 51 pharmaceutical classes, the results were only presented by class not by individual chemical. Therefore, it is difficult to compare our results with theirs. Their methodology was based primarily on predicted aquatic toxicity using the ECOSAR (Q)SAR model in EPI Suite that is derived from the log Kow values (as well as chemical classes)20 as is our bioaccumulation evaluation. Thus, as the log Kow increases so will the aquatic toxicity (until it exceeds the water solubility) and predicted bioaccumulation. Kools and co-workers7 ranked 233 veterinary medicines from Europe that had sufficient information on the following exposure scenarios: intensively reared animals, pasture animals, companion animals, and aquaculture. From the treatment regimes, predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) were calculated. Because ecotoxicity data were generally lacking, the authors used a therapeutic dose (TD) as a surrogate for ecological effects. They then used a risk index by dividing the PEC by the TD in soil and water. Of the 65 veterinary medicines mentioned in the publication, 64 were in our database. However, only one chemical, Levothyroxine (thyroxine), was in their priority list and in our HPV and P&B chemicals and previously detected in the environment (see Table S-1). Thirteen of the 65 veterinary medicines were listed in the non-HPV and P&B (364), but only 2 were listed by U.S. FDA as veterinary medicines (lasalocid and moxidectin). Kostich et al.28 used marketing and pharmacology data to prioritize future research efforts. The authors started with 371 active pharmaceutical ingredients with 2004 marketing data and divided it by therapeutic dose rates. For 50 pharmaceuticals, metabolic inactivation was used. Of the 54 pharmaceuticals listed in the article, 53 were in our database, but only 3 chemicals were in Table 1 of P&B or P chemicals: linezolid, fluticasone, and ketoconazole. Kumar and Xagoraraki29 ranked 57 pharmaceuticals and 43 personal care product and endocrine disrupting chemicals detected in U.S. streamwater/source water and finished drinking water—they used a range of criteria including occurrence,

treatment, bioaccumulation/ecotoxicity, and mammalian health effects. The authors did not indicate how they had selected the pharmaceuticals other than implying that many of them had been detected in surface or drinking water. Of the 57 pharmaceuticals, 43 were in Table S-1 which lists the 275 pharmaceuticals that have already been detected in the environment. The other 13 pharmaceuticals were not found in Table S-1 or Table 1 of P&B or P chemicals which are potential targets for analytical chemists to pursue—this is probably due to ecotoxicity and mammalian health effects criteria used by the authors. However, atorvastatin and fluoxetine were in Table S-5 which includes P&B chemicals that were non-HPV pharmaceuticals. These authors were the only ones who attempted to prioritize pharmaceuticals using mammalian health effects criteria (i.e., carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, impairment of fertility, central nervous system acting, endocrine effects, immunotoxicity, and developmental effects), but the literature searches were mostly limited to the National Library of Medicine’s Hazardous Substances Data Bank and often had no data available. Conducting extensive mammalian health effects literature searches for thousand of pharmaceuticals in order to prioritize would be extremely labor intensive. Analytical Challenges. The combined 58 P&B and 48 P pharmaceuticals in Table 1 have not been reported previously in environmental samples (peer-reviewed articles searched as of April 2011). Analytical methodology to determine them at trace concentrations in water (ng/L) or in biota (ng/g) typically required for environmental impact assessment,30 has not been developed. A major challenge is the need for analytical methods encompassing structurally different pharmaceuticals and personal care products.31,32 A more difficult issue is the determination of metabolites released into the environment, which are often in the form of conjugates, as well as transformation products generated in the environment itself by biodegradation, photolysis, or hydrolysis.33,34 Nevertheless, progress in the trace analysis of pharmaceuticals and selected degradation products in environmental samples has been very rapid over the past 10 years particularly for aquatic media.31,33,35 Existing methods for the 275 individual pharmaceutical active ingredients that have been determined to date can likely be adapted and could be aided by new approaches such as computer-aided prediction of transformation products and detection with high mass resolution.26

’ ASSOCIATED CONTENT

bS

Supporting Information. Tables in the Supporting Information provide a list of 275 pharmaceuticals that have already been detected in the environment (Table S-1); a list of 10 pharmaceuticals that have been detected in the environment but are not present in the U.S. FDA or other commercial databases

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Environmental Science & Technology (Table S-2); various forms of metoprolol records found in the database (Table S-3); the CASRN, structure, and name of 106 pharmaceuticals from Table 1 (Table S-4); and 364 pharmaceuticals that are not-HPV or previously detected in the environment but are potentially P&B (Table S-5). This information is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

’ AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author

*Phone: 315-727-0679; fax: 315-452-8440; e-mail: howardp@ srcinc.com.

’ ACKNOWLEDGMENT Financial support for the study was provided by the U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program Office (Chicago, IL) and by Environment Canada (Great Lakes 2020 program). We thank Ted Smith (U.S. EPA, GLNPO) for his interest in the project. Thanks to Joanne R. White and to Bill Meylan (SRC, North Syracuse, NY) for editorial corrections and physical chemical property estimates, respectively. ’ REFERENCES (1) Muir, D. C. G.; Howard, P. H. Are there new persistent organic pollutants? A challenge for environmental chemists. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40 (23), 7157 7166; DOI: 10.1021/es061677a. (2) Howard, P. H.; Muir, D. C. G. Identifying new persistent and bioaccumulative organics among chemicals in commerce. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44 (7), 2277 2285; DOI: 10.1021/es903383a. (3) Monteiro, S. C.; Boxall, A. B. A. Occurrence and fate of human pharmaceuticals in the environment. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2010, 202, 53 154; DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1157-5_2. (4) Boxall, A. B. A.; Kolpin, D. W.; Tolls, J. Are veterinary medicines causing environmental risk? Environ Sci. Technol. 2003, 37 (15), 286A–294ADOI: 10.1021/es032519b. (5) Daughton, C. G.; Ruhoy, I. S. Environmental footprint of pharmaceuticals: The significance of factors beyond direct excretion to sewers. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2009, 28 (12), 2495 2521; DOI: 10.1897/08-382.1. (6) Sanderson, H.; Johnson, D. J.; Reitsma, T.; Brain, R. A.; Wilson, C. J.; Solomon, K. R. Ranking and prioritization of environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in surface waters. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2004, 39, 158–183. (7) Kools, S. A. E.; Boxall, A. B. A.; Moltmann, J. F.; Bryning, G.; Koschorreck, J.; Knacker, T. A ranking of European veterinary medicines based on environmental risk. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manage. 2008, 4 (4), 399 408; DOI: 10.1897/IEAM_2008-002.1. (8) Fent, K.; Weston, A. A.; Caminada, D. Ecotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals. Aquat. Toxicol. 2006, 76 (2), 122 159. DOI 10.1016/ j.aquatox.2005.09.009. (9) Hernando, M. D.; Rodríguez, A.; Vaquero, J. J.; Fernandez-Alba, R. R.; García, E. Environmental risk assessment of emerging pollutants in water: Approaches under horizontal and vertical EU legislation. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 41 (7), 699–731. (10) U.S. FDA. Guidance for Industry Environmental Assessment of Human Drug and Biologics Applications; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration: Silver Spring, MD, 1998; http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm070561.pdf. (11) U.S. FDA. Drugs@FDA data files; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration: Silver Spring, MD, 2011; http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/InformationOnDrugs/ucm079750. htm.

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(12) RxList. Top 300 Rx Prescriptions; RxList; The Internet Drug Index; 2005; http://www.rxlist.com/script/main/hp.asp. (13) Wikipedia. List of bestselling drugs; Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.; 2010; http://www.rxlist.com/script/main/hp.asp. (14) MedAdNews. Med Ad News 200 World’s best-selling medicines. MedAdNews 2007, 13 (7); http://www.pharmalive.com/ magazines/medad/?date=07%2F2007. (15) Health Strategies Consultancy. Follow the pill: Understanding the U.S. commercial pharmaceutical supply chain; Henry H. Kaiser Family Foundation; Menlo Park, CA; 2005; http://www.kff.org/rxdrugs/upload/Follow-The-Pill-Understanding-the-U-S-Commercial-Pharmaceutical-Supply-Chain-Report.pdf. (16) U.S. FDA. Section 2.0 Active Ingredients; Approved Animal Drug Products; Green Book On-Line; U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine: Rockville, MD: 2011; http:// www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/Products/ApprovedAnimalDrugProducts/ucm042847.htm. (17) HSDB. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: Bethesda, MD, 2011; http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?HSDB. (18) NLM. ChemIDplus database. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: Bethesda, MD, 2011; http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/ htmlgen?CHEM. (19) MDL. ISISTM/Base 2.4. MDL Information Systems, Inc.: San Leandro, CA; 2005; http://accelrys.com/products/pdf/ISISBASE.pdf. (20) U.S. EPA. Estimation Program Interface (EPI) Suite, Version 4.00. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Washington, DC, 2005; http://www.epa.gov/oppt/exposure/pubs/episuitedl.htm. (21) U.S. EPA. 40 CFR Part 372 Persistent bioaccumulative toxic (PBT) chemicals; Proposed rule. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC; Federal Register, 1999, 64 (2), 687 729. (22) Gobas, F. A.; de Wolf, W.; Burkhard, L. P.; Verbruggen, E; Plotzke, E. Revisiting bioaccumulation criteria for POPs and PBT assessments. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manage. 2009, 5 (4), 624 637; DOI: 10.1897/IEAM_2008-089.1. (23) Tunkel, J.; Howard, P. H.; Boethling, R. S.; Stiteler, W.; Loonen, H. Predicting ready biodegradability in the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry test. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2000, 19 (10): 2478 2485. DOI: 10.1002/etc.5620191013. (24) Svanfelt, J.; Eriksson, J.; Kronberg, L. Analysis of thyroid hormones in raw and treated waste water. J. Chromatogr. A 2010, 1217 (42), 6469 6474; DOI 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.08.032. (25) Nieto, A.; Peschka, M.; Borrull, F.; Pocurull, E.; Marce, R. M.; Knepper, T. P. Phosphodiesterase type V inhibitors: Occurrence and fate in wastewater and sewage sludge. Water Res. 2010, 44 (5), 1607 1615; DOI 10.1016/j.watres.2009.11.009. (26) Kern, S.; Fenner, K.; Singer, H. P.; Schwarzenbach, R. P.; Hollender, J. Identification of transformation products of organic contaminants in natural waters by computer-aided prediction and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (18), 7039 7046; DOI: 10.1021/es901979h. (27) Kern, S.; Baumgartner, R.; Helbling, D. E.; Hollender, J.; Singer, H.; Loos, M. J.; Schwarzenbach, R. P.; Fenner, K. A tiered procedure for assessing the formation of biotransformation products of pharmaceuticals and biocides during activated sludge treatment. J. Environ. Monit. 2010, 12 (11), 2100 2111; DOI 10.1039/C0EM00238K. (28) Kostich, M. S., Lasorchak, J. M. Risks to aquatic organisms posed by human pharmaceutical use. Sci. Total Environ. 2008, 389 (2-3), 329 339; doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.09.008. (29) Kumar, A.; Xagoraraki, I. Pharmaceuticals, personal care products and endocrine-disrupting chemicals in U.S. surface and finished drinking waters: A proposed ranking system. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408 (23), 5972 5989; DOI 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.08.048. (30) EMEA. Guideline on the environmental risk assessment of medicinal products for human use; European Medicines Agency: London, UK, 6945

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’ NOTE ADDED AFTER ASAP PUBLICATION The last paragraph of the Introduction section was modified in the version of this paper published July 19, 2011. The correct version published July 26, 2011.

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