Article pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc
Incorporating a Soap Industry Case Study To Motivate and Engage Students in the Chemistry of Daily Life Mohammad A. Chowdhury* School of Chemistry, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800 Australia S Supporting Information *
ABSTRACT: The global trend of the declining interest in chemistry education is a major concern. Over the last few decades, significant efforts and improvements have been made in various areas of chemistry education research to increase student motivation and engagement based on classroom and laboratory practices. However, little research has been conducted on industrial case studies, which are effective teaching method to enhance concept learning. Exploring industrial case studies serves as a motivation for learning chemistry, helps students to learn through real-life situations, exposes students to problemsolving issues, and improves their decision-making abilities as they become informed citizens of the future. This article demonstrates incorporating an industrial case study as an integral part of the chemistry curriculum, and discusses related issues with a proposed model of the soap industry to help improve secondary or undergraduate students’ engagement, motivation, and interest in chemistry. KEYWORDS: Industrial Chemistry, High School/Introductory Chemistry, Curriculum, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Fatty Acids
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INTRODUCTION Science and technology impact each other, and scientific ideas are affected by social and historical milieu.1 Globally, science education is in crisis. The current declining situation of science education, chemistry in particular, is an issue of concern. Tytler2 has reported that Australian science education is in severe crisis, in which students are increasingly developing negative attitudes to science over the secondary school years, leading to decreasing participation in postcompulsory science subjects, and shortages of science-qualified people in the workforce, including qualified science teachers. The statement indicates the extent of social and cultural acceptance and values toward science education, and the implications of science and technology. The rapidly changing situation of science, technology, and globalization of society are creating numerous problems to adapt accordingly, and impose a psychological barrier to all science teachers, which demands attention for consensus and remedial actions from philosophers, historians, politicians, and science educators. The changing scenario in chemistry education and the decreasing number of students are primarily because of the difficult nature of understanding chemistry, and students’ lack of interest in studying chemistry beyond the compulsory school years. The basic emphasis should be on the way students learn chemistry, gain knowledge, and become motivated and inspired. These aspects are rarely reflected in current chemistry curricula. © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
Students want to see science or chemistry applications in real-life situations, and various practical implications such as experience in industrial settings and dealing with various problem-solving issues that can interest them in chemistry. Chemistry is a difficult subject to understand. The highly abstract nature of chemistry is itself a barrier for many students to comprehend even at the undergraduate level.3 Gable4 reported that many teachers try to make explicit efforts to integrate the three levels of understandings in chemistry: the macroscopic, submicroscopic or particulate, and symbolic phenomena, as proposed by Johnstone.5 When improperly integrated or handled, these issues create further confusion or make chemistry obscure on the students’ part.4 The Science−Technology−Society (STS) movement in science education is attracting educators. Aikenhead6 defines STS as: A technological artifact, process, or expertise The interactions between technology and society A societal issue related to science or technology Social science content that sheds light on a societal issue related to science and technology A philosophical, historical or social issue within the scientific or technological community
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Aikenhead7 defined the general goals of STS as a part of the science curricula, in which he acknowledged the importance of the industrial case study. A range of strategies and techniques has been developed to improve the interest and motivation of students from chemistry education research. One of them is the scaffolding strategies and linking the learning experiences to the areas of chemical industries or chemistry research. It is imperative that the scaffolding strategies should always be structured in a way to develop activities that are student-centered and inquiry-based. Scaffolding and promoting students’ learning through laboratory inquiry and use of digital resources contribute to enhancing students’ interest in chemistry. The applications of various computer-based simulations and visualization learning tools, along with varieties of the digital technologies, are effective.8 Seago9 demonstrated that when the participative inquirybased learning approach was introduced within the same student groups, there were significant improvements in terms of more interactions and integrative friendships: the students come up with reasonable explanations, identify the differences of expected and achieved results with errors, make their own judgments, and feel more confident.9 Despite significant efforts made to increase students’ motivation and engagement, based on the classroom and laboratory practices in various areas of the chemistry education, little research has been conducted on real-life chemistry applications such as industry or chemistry research, in which students can involve with, and relate their chemistry study to the classroom environment. The industrial visit or tour is an old and necessary initiative that cannot be ignored or ruled out for its importance and benefits. It plays a vital role in helping improve the interest and motivation of chemistry students. From a range of case-study-related literature, case-study methods have been revealed to be superior to standard traditional lecture to students. The theoretical cone of learning10 shows that small-group, case-study techniques using problembased learning methods provides the most effectiveness and highest degree of students’ retention over a period of six weeks.11 Herreid et al.12 reported that all previous case studies in science were mostly in the area of biology, which accounts for up to 90% of the total cases studied. The enabling science areas such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, and geology are not practicing the case study well as an effective teaching or instructional method.12 The premise of the present article is based on the description of research-based classroom activity, and is authenticated by various chemical education research findings. This article discusses devising a model case study on the soap industry, and implicates the associated issues to help improve secondary or undergraduate students’ engagement, motivation, and interest in chemistry, industrial chemistry in particular.
suggested by Kempa13 should be considered in implementing a chemistry curriculum focusing on industrial contexts, and industry-related teaching and learning materials and techniques, particularly the industrial case study. Hofstein and Kesner14 expressed similar views, and emphasized other related forms of learning and teaching materials apart from the industrial case study. Hofstein et al.15 reported that the students who were exposed to industrial chemistry experiences had achieved a higher awareness of the social implications of chemistry studies; these experiences helped students become better prepared future citizens, interested them in chemistry as a future occupational possibility, and provided relevant chemistry classroom learning environment. The students found chemistry studies more applicable, interesting, and relevant; they became more aware of the differences between laboratory experiments and industrial processes than the students who had no exposure to industrial chemistry. The authors also found15 that teachers who participated in intensive workshops, in-service education course or training, more capably presented chemistry to students than colleagues who did not participate. Mulroney16 reported the outcomes from eight case studies of Australian science teachers who participated in an industry placement program for 40 weeks, and described in three major domains. 1. Teachers’ knowledge and science philosophy changed in terms of “real-world” situations, links between science and economics, scientific method, laboratory practices, and science careers. 2. Teachers developed knowledge and skills in communication, business management, change management, personal management, teamwork, quality assurance, computing, interpersonal skills, and adult learning. 3. Teachers’ classroom practices changed to emphasize practical applications, experimentation, issues related to scientific method, industrial links, self-confidence, career information, and vocational education. An industrial visit can only be effective if it satisfies requirements of attitudinal aspects of the learning process as well as cognitive matter for students. The industrial visit is an instructional tool to enhance concept learning, and serves as a motivation for learning chemistry. Orion and Hofstein17 reported on the results of field trips that the attitudes of 9th and 10th-grade students are influenced more by the social and adventure than the learning aspects, while the trip was perceived less as a social adventure and more as a learning event by 11thgrade students. The variable attitudinal aspects, students’ expectations about a visit, students’ preparation, and, importantly, the expected cognitive outcome must be considered before planning a visit to industry. Incorporating the soap industry case study in a chemistry curriculum can be rationalized based on these realities: Fats and soap chemistry are part of higher education curriculum in most countries around the globe. Soap is the most commonly used product for everyday life that students experience. The case-study involvement can affect the way students deal with a real-life situation. Constant diversification of consumer markets such as biodiesel, animal feedstock, or other emerging applications that use the major raw materials is making an impact on the soap industry, and necessitates more studies and
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THE CASE STUDY AND INDUSTRIAL VISIT Many educators now acknowledge the necessity of aligning chemistry curriculum design with both cognitive and affective goals. Students can perceive chemistry knowledge as useful and relevant when scientific topics such as medical, health, environment, energy, materials science, and industry-based issues are presented to them in a plausible and intelligible manner. Future generations of science students should have the capability to cope objectively with socio-economic, ethical, and environmental issues. The six interrelated fundamental dimensions to develop teaching and learning chemistry that were B
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laboratory. Information on the soap making processes is available on the Internet, in books, and is reported elsewhere.19 Students can calculate and use the molar proportions of the reactants and, following the reaction conditions, can carry out the synthesis and analyses. The basic soap reaction is given in eq 1.
research, which curriculum developers should emphasize more. If teachers consult their students and seek opinions prior to visiting an industrial site, this could be more effective. In a classroom, the teacher may explain the activities involved during a visit to an industrial site and how students can benefit from learning chemistry better. Nae et al.18 suggest that teachers identify one or more objectives for visiting an industrial site, such as concentrating on one plant that describes the manufacture of one product from raw materials, following the application of a chemical principle in the production of several products. In identifying specific objectives and making a plan, teachers may consider those objectives in their decision-making process. The selection of an industry should be based on the subject and content of the existing curriculum. Teachers may use this effort as a project in which students are actively involved in asking questions, discussing among peers and the industry personnel, and writing a report at the end. Teachers can guide students and assist as a facilitator to instigate and improve students’ analytical and innovative thinking ability. Students can be involved individually or in groups; however, a small-group activity (three to four students) may have enhanced effectiveness. Prior to visiting an industrial site, the teacher may provide clear information to students that creates a broader picture rather than a discrete or partial view, that is, all relevant and associated information on the industry. This will allow students to look at the industry aspects in both macroscopic and microscopic points of views. The description of the detailed information on the soap industry is provided later in the proposed guideline information section. Students need relevant information with sufficient time for preparation. Teachers may guide students to find specific and particular information, such as soap chemistry and processrelated aspects. Accordingly, students will be engaged in searching information through the articles, newspapers, books, Internet, or other sources. Students can make a plan through peer discussions as to what activities will be involved once they have gathered all particular information about the soap industry, such as concentrating on soap reactions, glycerin separations, and chemists’ activities in the industrial laboratory. Making a list of questions for students would be useful prior to an industrial site visit; these examples are a starting point: How are soaps produced? How is soap separated from the reaction mixture? How is glycerin separated and purified through the distillation process? What quality parameters are expected during the process and for final products? How do research and development staff work on the products or processes involved? How do soap industry chemists interact with other staff on-site? How are the industrial wastes monitored and handled? Teachers should guide students to facilitate students’ planning, preparation, and activities. A dual mode of scaffolding technique can be more effective for this type of case study. First, the teacher can guide students to Web sites about soap chemistry and the soap making process, or show videos to the students on these topics. Second, the other technique is to provide hands-on and minds-on experience about laboratory learning skills. For example, the teacher may devise an experimental protocol to synthesize and analyze soap in the
Fat + 3NaOH → Glycerin + 3Soap
(1)
Students can analyze different parameters by titrimetric measurements such as the glycerin, free fat, and free fatty acid content; the total fatty matter content can be measured by the ether extraction method. This laboratory-based inquiry and learning technique coupled with the visualization of digital information will enable students to reflect upon the micro- and macro-level of understandings when they visit the industrial site. This student-centered activity can thus help students in understanding chemistry concepts at the molecular level: analyzing, handling, and explaining data. Upon completing the site visit, the teacher may ask students to examine their activities during the course of industry visit through peer discussions, and reflect on the experiences they gained from the visit. Students can crosscheck their experiences with preprepared questions as described earlier. At this stage, the teacher may instigate and allow students to be involved in discussions and ask questions. The teacher may ask some leading questions relevant to the chemical principles of soap manufacturing to ascertain the learning outcomes. The questions may address topics such as the major reaction of the soap production; the molar ratio of the reactants being used during the reaction; how the soap and glycerin are separated and the distillation process of glycerin; and various testing parameters and measurements. This can facilitate students’ involvement in inquiry-based and student-centered learning activities, and thus can help summarize their visit. At the end, the teacher may request a written report or creation of a digital poster on the case study, providing guidance as necessary while students prepare their report. The teacher then evaluates or assesses the report, and grades elements of the students’ performance. The teacher may guide and demonstrate how the students can structure their report in organizing, integrating, linking, and communicating their own ideas and peer discussions, then express the report in a presentable format, which would involve various aspects of critical reflection, critical thinking, analysis, and making judgments. This can provide students with a depth of thinking, understanding, and ability of expressing the objectives of the case study. To avoid the possibility of students’ focus drifting from the main objectives, the teacher may prepare and follow assessment rubrics, and explain to students beforehand. This can help the students in creative report writing, categorizing, conceptualizing, and interpreting in their own creative way; acquiring thinking capability in a structured and logical way, and expressing in a narrative mode where the students’ knowledgebuilding efforts can become evident. It is also possible to carry out such a case study without visiting an industrial site. Industrial sites may not be easily accessible or may be located far from the school; the visit may have to be postponed or interrupted unexpectedly. Hence, the teacher can articulate and devise an alternative plan should the situation arise. Based on the experience and information gathered from students, the case study has been found to be overwhelmingly positive for the students. A few student responses and reactions are provided as examples: C
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Figure 1. General schematic diagram of soap and glycerin manufacture from raw materials.
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Initially I thought the visit would not be any different than the normal excursions. But I was really amazed when I saw how our chemistry knowledge is in action, in real life! The industrial visit gave me a better understanding about the process of industry, how products are made from the starting materials, and in between how the chemistry knowledge and applications are involved. The case study and industry visit brought me closer to chemistry, and now I feel more interested in chemistry than before. Our classroom and laboratory experiments on soap chemistry and the industrial visit provided a greater opportunity to observe the comparison and applications in a real-life situation. The chemistry profession is more interesting, interactive, stimulating, and challenging [now] that I have experienced this case study.
chemistry activities for all processes involved from raw materials to final products. Tallow
Tallow is saturated fat. Fats are extracted in the abattoir from beef, pork, and goat and lamb separately, and undergo a different rendering process for different fats. After rendering, fats are turned into corresponding tallow, such as beef tallow, pork tallow, goat or lamb tallow. During the course of the rendering process, and prior to supply in the soap industry, the quality of fats is rigorously ascertained through testing different quality parameters. Vegetable Oil
Vegetable oils contain unsaturated fatty matter, and are extracted from different plant origins. Their cost and quality varies, and is checked rigorously prior to supply in the soap industry. Typical vegetable oils used in soap manufacturing are coconut oil, palm kernel oil, canola oil, soya bean oil, and rice bran oil. Vegetable oils are blended with tallow during the saponification process of soap production to adjust the quality and maintain cost effectiveness. Chemists apply similar types of test methodologies used for tallow to check the quality of vegetable oils.
FRAMEWORK FOR THE CASE STUDY ON SOAP INDUSTRY
The author proposes a comprehensive guideline framework as background information on the soap industry case study as delineated below. Teachers can use the guideline provided or articulate their own framework for their students. The flowchart shown in Figure 1 provides a general schematic snapshot in which the processing of a range of raw materials are involved, such as tallow, vegetable oil, caustic soda, through to the end products, namely, soap and the byproduct, glycerin. Chemistry applications in each portion of the flowchart20 are described below, which provides a range of aspects of the
Caustic Soda or Sodium Hydroxide
In earlier times, caustification of the Solvay soda (sodium carbonate) process was used, in which sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) was produced from sodium carbonate (soda) reacting with the calcium hydroxide. However, in modern systems, caustic soda is produced from a sodium chloride (NaCl) electrolysis process, and the quality is controlled in the plant during its processing, and prior to supply in the soap industry. D
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Soaps and Glycerin
UV−vis spectrophotometer for metallic content measurements, especially for iron Test Methods. The ASTM and AOCS are common test methods being used as the standards that various companies adopt and validate into their quality assurance systems. Some organizations carry out their own validated test methods. The following methods of measurements are common in the fats, oils, and soap industries. Oil density, color, free fatty acid, TFM, free fat and caustic soda content measurements Measurements of salt, water, glycerin and unsaponifiable matter of fats or tallow Titer value, bleaching, and bleachability test of fats or tallow Fatty acid profiles using GC or HPLC A range of water analyses by the titrimetric methods of boiler, process, feed, and discharged water Tests of other quality parameters: biological oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, and salinity What Chemists Do in the Fats, Tallow, and Soap Manufacturing Industries? Chemists are involved in a myriad range of activities, and build up different skills and expertise beyond their general technical knowledge. Chemists in these fields interact with marketing, market research, purchasing, and distribution staff, as well as various suppliers and customers locally and internationally. The activities are briefly summarized below: Collect samples and analyze raw materials, processed or finished products, and packaging materials; report on quality and related issues Test and analyze various water samples: boiler, process, feed, and discharged water Test and monitor environmental samples Engage in physical testing, wet chemistry, and various instrumental analyses Work in close coordination with the marketing personnel; collaborate with in-house research and development to improve existing or develop new products; monitor competitors’ product quality Provide feedback to and receive requests from marketing staff to design and tailor new products or product formulations to meet customers’ requirements Interact directly with customers and suppliers to explain and address various technical queries, issues, and feedback Oversee technicians in daily plant or laboratory operation Engage in troubleshooting manufacturing problems
Tallow and vegetable oils are blended in appropriate proportions and mixed with caustic soda; the reaction takes place in an autoclave-type reaction vessel at the elevated temperature of 125 °C. In the reaction scheme of Figure 2, R groups represent fatty acid carbon chains of normally between 8 to 24 carbon atoms.
Figure 2. The saponification reaction between fats or tallow and sodium hydroxide to produce soap and glycerin.
After the saponification between fat and caustic soda (NaOH), glycerin (byproduct) is extracted from the reaction mixture using brine solution (∼4% NaCl solution in water). Glycerin is highly soluble in brine. When electrolyte (NaCl) concentration is increased, the wet soap separates into two layers: crude soap and a mixture of “residual soap−brine−glycerin” known as spent lye. The spent lye is then pumped back to the pan for reuse in the next batch of saponification. When the lye solution turns to neutral, it is enriched in glycerin. The glycerin is then filtered and pumped off to the distillation process plant for recovery and purification, where the glycerin is normally purified up to 98− 99.5% and 99.5−99.9% to make two separate grades for marketing. The wet soap is soluble in weak brine; however, soap starts separating out as the electrolyte (NaCl) concentration increases. The wet soap thus has very low electrolyte concentration with a reasonable amount of water content (∼30%), which makes it easier to pump (at 70 °C) to the soap plodder. The soap still contains some salt (normally less than 1% NaCl), which functions as an additive. After removal of the spent lye, the soap is dried, chipped, mixed with other additives, such as perfumes and preservatives, and then plodded (squeezed together), formed into tablets and packaged for sale. For laundry soaps, the water content is much higher (∼30− 35%), with total fatty matter (TFM) content of 60−65%, less than 1% salt (NaCl), and the remaining portion is glycerin. In toilet soaps, TFM content ranges from 80 to 85%, and the remaining portion is water, salt (NaCl), and glycerin. In the manufacturing of toilet soap, water and glycerin content are carefully adjusted to avoid cracks in the soap during storage. Glycerin works as a humectant in the soap.
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Analytical Instrumentation and Test Methods
DISCUSSION The constructive views of learning pay attention to concentrating on the cognitive content of the minds of individual learners.21 In the context of the industrial case study, the constructivist approach provides opportunities to learn, verify the theoretical knowledge into practice, see the real-life situation where chemistry is in action, and help improve hands-on and mindson capability. The context-based curriculum helps to increase the relevance of chemistry through authentic applications of chemistry concepts that include social, economic, environmental, technological, and industrial applications, and is being recognized in the 21st century. Chemistry teachers must know and use their
Chemists are involved in different analytical and quality control activities. Chemists use the following analytical instruments and methods in general for all categorized processes as described in Figure 1. Instruments. Lovibond tintometer, comparator, and optical colorimeter Oil density meter TFM measurement using the ether extraction and separation method Titrimetric apparatus such as burettes, Karl Fischer titrator, and drying ovens Rotary vacuum evaporator and other extraction apparatus GC apparatus for the measurement of fatty acid profiles E
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developers to make chemistry more relevant and interesting to students. In Australia, different universities offer the undergraduate chemistry course with a range of subjects as core and optional units such as synthetic chemistry, environmental chemistry, food chemistry, materials chemistry, physical chemistry, inorganic chemistry, instrumental analysis, spectroscopy, analytical chemistry, and chemistry research projects. A number of students choose to double major with a degree in chemistry and other science subject. The chemistry discipline also serves as a bridge and pathway to move to another career such as biological and biomedical sciences. In the high school curriculum, the areas of chemistry study generally cover the periodic table, materials, water, the atmosphere, chemical analysis, organic chemical pathways, industrial chemistry, supply and use of energy, nanotechnology, green chemistry, and biofuels. Both in the higher secondary and undergraduate curricula, industrial chemistry concepts of various industries are taught theoretically and are confined to the classroom learning environment, which does not allow students to perceive and learn chemistry in reallife situations. The complexity of modern society because of rapid technological advancement with its ramifications is reflected in the curricula design of chemistry. Under such circumstances, it is quite difficult to justify inclusion of industrial case studies in the chemistry curriculum until we realize its importance and significance. Curriculum developers can play a vital role in consultation with teachers, educators, scientists, and stakeholders to pay attention in this respect. Forming an industrial advisory or education ministerial committee could be effective in ensuring that the current curriculum meets local needs and industrial site visits are used to facilitate students’ cognitive development. The committee could evaluate how such activities would affect the curriculum and the students’ learning process, which may help justify incorporating industrial site visits and case studies into the curriculum. The committee could also be supportive in launching various pertinent Web sites where teachers, students, and parents could be informed and benefit from the information provided, and be involved in regular consultation with teachers, curriculum developers, and stakeholders. In terms of outcomes for the soap industry model, although it has been found to be overwhelmingly positive from the initial responses and reactions of the students, it still needs more rigorous evaluation from the perspectives of teachers and curriculum developers’ acceptance and validation. There are opportunities to improve this model if teachers can employ and practice other well-organized pedagogical devices or techniques. An ambassador program in partnership with soap industry professionals may be considered for case study improvements, as such a program can help bridge effectively between the classroom and industry with provisions of key insights that are necessary to encourage students toward a career in science.24 The author believes that the model case study on the soap industry and the relevant discussions presented in this article will be helpful to educators, policy makers, and curriculum developers in the processes of decision making, and for justifying whether compulsory industrial case studies should be adopted in the chemistry curriculum and implemented for all students. This model can also be a guide for other industrial chemistry case studies or models, particularly when the manufacture of various raw materials, main products, and byproducts are considered in a combined way to reflect on the overall industrial processes as presented in this article.
content knowledge in a variety of ways to motivate students in their learning and become interested in chemistry, to be responsive to the needs of students, to help facilitate students’ understanding, and to provide a challenge for them. Teachers should have a clear understanding of the broad spectrum of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) associated with science and chemistry in the aspects of orientation toward the science teaching, knowledge of curriculum, knowledge of science assessment, knowledge of science learners, and knowledge of instructional strategies.22 Additionally, teachers should devote time for reflection and continuous improvement of PCK, which ultimately serves as a reflective tool to self-monitor and evaluate one’s own learning and professional growth. Industrial chemistry topics, particularly industrial case studies, should be integrated into the chemistry curriculum; unfortunately these topics are not typically emphasized in current practice. To develop a contextbased curriculum, including industrial case studies, requires the participation and combined efforts of teachers, curriculum developers, scientists, and various stakeholders. To become better-informed future citizens and decision makers, our students should have solid foundations in chemistry to enable further acquisition of chemistry knowledge that would allow them to consider culture and context in making decisions. Students should develop the capability to apply chemistry in understanding and controlling environments. They should also be able to reflect on science, technology, and decisions, various limitations of science and chemistry, differences between science and technology, and how science and technology considerations differ from personal and political values.23 Unfortunately, without emphasizing or including industrial chemistry case studies into chemistry curricula, these expectations of the effectiveness of the next generation of students may not be fulfilled. The importance, necessity, and effective outcomes of teachers’ training practices relative to industrial chemistry were discussed earlier. Hofstein and Kesner14 report in their survey that 66% of the teachers involved in the project did not take any university course on industrial chemistry, and 33% of them did not visit any chemical plant during their studies. The teachers in that study expressed these reservations: (i) It is hard to teach about industry; (ii) Without having any background in this field, teachers feel insecure about being able to present industrial chemistry properly to students; and (iii) It demands a completely different way of thinking and teaching practices. To overcome such issues, the authors14 suggested the need for intensive and comprehensive in-service professional development of chemistry teachers as a bottom-up approach. This will help teachers reduce their anxiety about adapting to unfamiliar content, issues, and pedagogical approaches, while enriching their experiences with instructional ideas, professional development, and increasing their sense of ownership, which can have significant effects on developing and implementing teaching materials. The authors’ suggestions14 have been proven through practical evidence when Mulroney16 reported the outcome and impact on teachers’ training, as described earlier. The current article is in alignment with the view of Hofstein and Kesner,14 and Mulroney,16 that advocates an emphasis on teachers’ in-service training and the necessity for monitoring and assessing students’ progress and learning outcomes in the industrial case study, which can be addressed at in-service training sessions. The research findings also support the author’s view and proposition of incorporating industrial chemistry case studies as an integral part of the chemistry curriculum, and providing the impetus for curriculum F
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(7) Aikenhead, G. S. Science in Social Issues: Implications for Teaching; Science Council of Canada: Ottawa, 1980. (8) Hilton, A.; Nichols, K.; Gitsaki, C. Paper presented at AARE Conference, Australia, December 4, 2008, Paper Code HIL08473. http://publications.aare.edu.au/08pap/hil08473.pdf (accessed May 2013). (9) Seago, C. Practically Speaking, Less Is More. In Looking into Practice: Cases of Science Teachers’ Professional Growth; Berry, A., Keast, S., Eds; Monash University and the Catholic Education Office Melbourne: Melbourne, Australia, 2009; Vol. 1, pp 69−71. (10) Lord, T. J. Coll. Sci. Teach. 2007, 37, 14−17. (11) Herreid, C. F. J. Chem. Educ. 2013, 90, 256−257. (12) Herreid, C. F.; Schiller, N. A.; Herreid, K. F.; Wright, C. J. Coll. Sci. Teach. 2011, 40, 76−80. (13) Kempa, R. F. Developing New Perspectives in Chemical Education. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference in Chemistry, Education, and Society; Rambaud, A. and Heikkinen, H. W., Eds., Montpellier, France, 1983; pp 34−42. (14) Hofstein, A.; Kesner, M. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2006, 28, 1017−1039. (15) Hofstein, A.; Kesner, M.; Ben-zvi, R. Learn. Environ. Res. 2000, 2, 291−306. (16) Mulroney, G. Teacher Internships for Science and Technology Education. In Science and Technology Education for Responsible Citizenship and Economic Development, Proceedings of the 8th Symposium of the International Organization for Science and Technology Education; Calhoun, K., Panwar, R., Shrum, S., Eds.; University of Alberta, Continuing Professional Education: Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1997. (17) Orion, N.; Hofstein, A. Sci. Educ. 1991, 75, 513−523. (18) Nae, H.; Mandler, V.; Hofstein, A.; Samuel, D. J. Chem. Educ. 1982, 59, 582−583. (19) JCE Classroom Activity #14: Soapmaking. J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 192A−192B. (20) Spitz, L. SODEOPEC: Soaps, Detergents, Oleochemicals, and Personal Care Products; AOCS Press: Skokie, IL, 2004. (21) McInerney, D.; McInerney, V. Effective Teaching and Learning. In Educational Psychology: Constructing Learning; Pearson Australia: French’s Forest: N.S.W., Australia, 2010. (22) Kompf, M. Changing Research and Practice: Teachers’ Professionalism, Identities and Knowledge, Proceedings of the 7th International Study Association on Teacher Thinking Conference; Falmer Press: London, 1996. (23) Roberts, D. Sci. Educ. 1982, 66, 243−260. (24) Lynch, M.; Geary, N.; Hagaman, K.; Munson, A.; Sabo, M. J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 191−195.
The author has provided a lesson plan, a set of questions to discuss prior to, during, and after the industrial trip, and an assessment rubric for this case study as a guide to the teachers in the Supporting Information.
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CONCLUSIONS Following the discussions on the industrial case study and the pertinent issues of teaching and learning chemistry, the author reaches the following points of conclusion: The industrial case study is an instructional tool that enhances the learning of concepts, and provides proper motivation and active engagement of both teachers and students. Using an industrial case study is an effective teaching method that enables students to see classroom chemistry in real-life situations as “chemistry in action”. Student-centered, inquiry-based learning approaches should be reflected in the chemistry curriculum, and applied successfully to the industrial case study. Scaffolding strategies and linking learning experiences to industrial chemistry topics improve students’ interest, motivation, and engagement. Comparative learning in both classroom and laboratory, and industrial visits, helps students reflect on their understanding and improves analytical and critical thinking abilities. Chemistry curricula should emphasize the implications and manifestations of science, technology, environment, societal, and economics issues related to chemistry study. Industrial chemistry case studies should be an integral part of the chemistry curriculum, and the study load needs to be justified in order to be incorporated into the curriculum. Teachers’ in-service training should regularly focus on industrial case studies as part of the professional development program.
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ASSOCIATED CONTENT
S Supporting Information *
Assessment rubrics; lesson plan; questions for teachers. This material is available via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*Corresponding Author E-mail: mohammad.chowdhury@ monash.edu. Notes
The author declares no competing financial interest.
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REFERENCES
(1) McComas, W. F. The Nature of Science in Science Education: Rationales and Strategies; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1998. (2) Tytler, R. Re-Imagining Science Education: Engaging Students in Science for Australia’s Future. Aust. Educ. Rev. 2007, 51; http://research. acer.edu.au/aer/3 (accessed Jun 2013). (3) Ware, S. A. Pure Appl. Chem. 2001, 73, 1209−1214. (4) Gable, D. L. J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 548−554. (5) Johnstone, A. H. J. Comput. Assisted Learn. 1991, 7, 75−83. (6) Aikenhead, G. What Is STS Science Teaching? In STS Education International Perspectives on Reform; Solomon, J., Aikenhead, G., Eds.; Teachers College Press: New York, 1994; pp 47−59. G
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