Introducing Students to Fundamental Chemistry Concepts and Basic

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Introducing Students to Fundamental Chemistry Concepts and Basic Research through a Chemistry of Fashion Course for Nonscience Majors Karen A. Tallman* Asnuntuck Community College, Enfield, Connecticut 06082, United States

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S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: The combined lab and lecture course is designed around the themes of colorants (dyestuffs and pigments) and fibers (natural and human-made) for nonscience majors. Students dye natural and synthetic fibers with natural dyes such as turmeric, raspberries, tea, and cochineal insects as well as synthetic dyes. The students observe the colorfast properties of a dye and the changes made to a fiber during the dyeing process. Some chemical concepts introduced over the semester are light energy and color, solution chemistry, chemical bonding and bond polarity, acids and bases, and oxidizing and reducing agents. An important component of this class is introducing students to primary literature. The students, throughout the semester, read and discuss research articles on topics relevant to the coursework. The course culminates with students applying all they learned through a self-designed inquiry project. Students, in groups, write a research proposal using science research literature. At the end of the semester, the students in the lab conduct original research, which culminates with the students sharing their findings with the class in a conference-like setting. Students from two classes (N = 34) completed a SALG (student assessment of their learning gains) survey; SALG is a web-based instrument that allows students to assess their perceptions of learning gains made over the duration of the course. The students were asked about the gains they experienced from this course in collaborative work, scientific literacy skills, science attitudes, and connecting science to other situations. The students showed good gains in working in collaborative settings and knowing how to gather and use data. The students also reported a better understanding of how chemistry relates to other classes and how it can apply to other situations. The students were also taught how to critically read scientific research articles. While the improvement in critical reading was not as robust, it did indicate an improvement in the students’ understanding of how to read scientific studies. This lab and lecture course, designed to increase interdisciplinary learning at the schoolparticularly with the school’s fashion, marketing, and communication majorspiqued students’ interest in chemistry, improved their understanding of scientific processes, and helped them understand the role of chemistry in other subjects. KEYWORDS: First-Year Undergraduate/General, Interdisciplinary/Multidisciplinary, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Collaborative/Cooperative Learning, Dyes/Pigments

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INTRODUCTION Fashion is annually a trillion dollar global industry, and in the United States about $250 billion is spent annually on fashion items.1 The fashion industry involves jobs in research and development, marketing, and design, and these jobs have the potential to offer high wages.1 At Lasell College, where this class was developed, there are many students studying fashion design, fashion communication, and fashion marketing. These students were the impetus for creating this general education science inquiry course. None of the students taking this class were chemistry majors; the college does not offer a chemistry major. This class fulfills a requirement at the college that students have to take four courses during their first two years that engage them with four Knowledge Perspectives: • Aesthetics and Creativity • Scientific Inquiry and Problem Solving • Global and Historical • Individual and Society This course addressed the Scientific Inquiry and Problem Solving Knowledge Perspective that students usually take in their first two years at the college. The focus of the class was on © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

helping the students understand the processes of scientific inquiry to solve problems. The course emphasized students knowing how to use appropriate tools to solve problems; knowing how to collect, analyze, and synthesize data; learning how to work effectively in collaborative groups; and learning how to read and respond to scientific literature. This course was offered for two sessions per semester over five semesters. Both sessions always filled up, and many of the students were from across the disciplines and not just fashion majors. Teaching chemistry to nonscience majors with practical applications has been explored through many courses. These theme-centered chemistry courses help students connect to chemistry including chemistry in the real world,2 chemistry of perfume,3 green chemistry,4 forensics,5 and chemistry of art.6,7 Courses designed around inquiry-based learning have been found to help nonscience students overcome their anxiety toward science and better understand scientific principles, which Received: October 8, 2018 Revised: July 13, 2019

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00826 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

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helps them become more scientifically literate.8 An area of chemistry not addressed, but applicable to all students, is the chemistry of fashion. Fashion is a part of every student’s daily life.

to our planet. They are learning about weighing choices when being a consumer. In the article read and discussed in class, “Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry”,14 students learn about the history of the manufacturing of clothing, the new market of quick fashion, and the growing interest in eco-fashion. The students learn to critically think about different aspects of fashion and the environmental impact of the current fashion industry.

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RATIONALE A course in chemistry in fashion is readily applicable to students of many different backgrounds and lends itself to learning through authentic research. Many of the students enrolled in the course had already dyed their own yarns, fabrics, or hair, but they were not familiar with the chemistry behind these processes or even the connection of science to their actions. Teaching nonscience majors through topics that are applicable to them invites them into the language, the processes, and the ways of thinking in science that many of these students are unfamiliar with or have had unpleasant experiences with in the past. Authentic research is engaging students in a process where they learn to generate original research questions, hypothesize, design experiments, analyze data, and communicate results.9 Framing the course with a collaboratively designed student-led project incorporates the processes of authentic research, which helps students develop scientific reasoning. Scientific reasoning through authentic research for nonscience majors improves students’ problem-solving skills, which is a desirable outcome for science courses.10 In 2017, 12 faculty who teach authentic research classes for nonscience majors met at a life science conference to address the desired outcomes for nonscientists to learn in college. The group highlighted three main outcomes. 1. Scientific literacy skills: the ability to make sense of science that is relevant to the students’ daily life 2. Prescience attitudes: an understanding by students that science and technology contribute to knowledge 3. Evidence-based decision-making skills: students learning to make decisions using science11 In their report, the professors discussed the differences between majors and nonmajors and stressed the importance of creating courses for nonmajors that are personally relevant and promote inclusive environments. A study examining students learning through an authentic research approach vs a cookbook laboratory format found that the students in the authentic research course showed a more positive attitude to collaborative work, a better understanding of how real scientific research was conducted, and a greater interest in biological research.12 An important goal of this course was to engage nonscience students in scientific practices. The best way to help the students understand scientific processes was to engage them in research while learning scientific inquiry because many of the students were already experimenting with dyeing in their work without understanding the science behind their experimentation. The lecture was taught in conjunction with the lab to emphasize scientific inquiry.13 This course also examines harmful issues connected to the fashion industry, and the impact the students as consumers and creators of fashion may have on the environment. In this course, students learn about natural and synthetic fibers, and natural and synthetic dyes. They also learn that polyester, nylon, acrylic, and Spandex have extremely useful properties such as strength, resilience, and elasticity; however, they are made from petroleum and come with an environmental toll, particularly polyester. As the students learn about polymers, they are also learning the impact of synthetic polymers and the consequences

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THE COURSE This course is divided into five units that address chemical concepts related to fashion. Fashion chemistry touches on the following chemical concepts: (1) Light energy and color, (2) Solution chemistry, (3) Chemical bonding and bond polarity, (4) Chemical equations and precipitate reactions, (5) Acids and bases, (6) Oxidizing and reducing agents. The units are explained in the next section. Each unit focuses on related research literature, relevant chemical concepts, and applicable laboratory work that helps students understand scientific processes. The units begin with students reading and discussing research literature that applies to the material covered in that unit. Each article has also been chosen to highlight a different part of the research process. The students discuss these articles through small group discussions, fishbowl-style discussions, and large class discussions. The research articles are led by the instructor at the beginning of the term to help students understand how to read a research article. As the semester progresses, students lead the discussions. Sometimes the methods used in the article are too technical for nonscience majors, but the background information or discussion of data is useful to further understand the lab work in the unit. There is no text for the class, but there are worksheets for the chemical concepts taught throughout the semester to help reinforce the concept. These worksheets contain practice problems on the chemistry topics covered in class and are very similar to chemistry worksheets that are used to supplement an introductory chemistry class. Many of the laboratories are designed with questions that bring the students back to the research literature to help them understand how to apply research literature to their original research in class. This course is offered over the traditional college semester system. Classes run for 15 weeks. (See the Supporting Information for a course outline.)

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COURSE CONTENT This course is divided into five units: (1) Light as a Source of Color, (2) Natural Dyeing Processes, (3) Synthetic Dyeing Processes, (4) Environmental Impact, (5) Application (student research project). The last unit, the student research projects, is spread throughout the course. References for the articles read throughout each unit are provided except for the final unit, the students’ research projects, where the students provide research articles connected to their project. Although detailed procedures and the students’ results from the laboratories are not provided, references to the laboratories are provided, and B

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there are splotches. They also wash the dyed fiber in cold water baths to see if the fiber retains the color. The students address these question in lab groups but also share their results with the class. This allows us to see if two groups got different results using the same techniques, dyes, and fibers. The sharing of results leads to a discussion about the need to repeat experiments when using the scientific method to ensure the results are reproducible and valid. The scientific method is overtly discussed throughout this course so that the students are aware of the expectations for their own experiment at the end of the term. The second lab in this unit introduces colorfastness and the role of mordants to improve colorfastness and vibrancy of a particular dye to a specific fiber. Students learn about the chemical role of a mordant in the natural dyeing process. Students also learn of the many types of mordants available. Students use potassium aluminum sulfate (alum) and copper(II) sulfate as mordants. Each lab group chooses three swatches each of cotton, wool, and nylon. A swatch of each fiber is treated in an alum water bath, and another set is treated in the copper(II) sulfate water bath. A set of each swatch is left untreated. Each group is assigned a dye from the previous lab and dyes the pretreated fiber in a dye bath. An open inquiry section is included in this lab where each lab group, after following the above outline, alters a variable. The students may choose to dye a fabric simultaneously with a mordant. The students may also use a mordant after dyeing the fabric. Some lab groups explore the effect of a change in the temperature of the dye bath. The purpose of having the students alter a variable is to help students begin to hypothesize what happens when one variable in an experiment is changed. The students create a table combining each group’s lab work to learn how to synthesize the classes’ results. Students examine whether the process used to apply the mordant affected the fibers in the same way. The students examine the fiber for a change in the color of the dye or to observe if the process affected the texture of the fiber. The students also test the colorfastness of the dye with the mordant.

where there is no reference detailed information about the lab procedure is provided in the text. (See the Supporting Information for a course outline.) Light as a Source of Color

Light as Source of Color begins by introducing students to fashion through the field of color psychology. This unit begins by having students read two research articles that are more accessible to nonscience majors. The students learn about the emotions associated with different colors and how this is used in marketing. These two articles foster conversation on a topic about which the students may have prior knowledge, even if just as consumers, and set the tone for the semester on the expectations for classroom participation when reading and discussing research papers. To introduce students to how light and color are related, students conduct three different experiments: The Absorption of Radiant Energy,15 Reflectivity of Light,16 and UV Light and Clothing.17 These laboratories from Vernier were slightly modified; for example, instead of just using colored paper as the laboratories are written by Vernier, now different colored fibers have been added to the procedure. Through the laboratories and connected lectures students learn about the electromagnetic spectrum and the connection of color and light energy. Finally, in this unit students explore the properties of different fibers and how these are used by the garment industry for UV protection and insulation. Students read the two articles, “Ultraviolet Protection Factor of Gray-State Plain Cotton Knitted Fabric”18 and “The Interaction of Water with Fabrics”,19 to help them learn to apply a research article to a new subject they are learning. These two articles directly relate to the UV Light and Clothing Lab17 and the Insulation Lab.20 Dyeing and the Dyeing Process

The second unit begins with an introduction to natural dyes. This unit goes in-depth into the preparation of natural dyes using natural dye materials. Students extract color from vegetables, fruits, roots, and bugs. For example, the following are used: (1) cochineal bug, (2) turmeric, (3) beets, (4) purple cabbage, (5) alkanet, (6) berries. The students ground the dye material when needed with a mortar and pestle and a little water. The ground up material is then heated in water for an about an hour. The spices, such as turmeric, are added to water and heated, with occasional stirring. Different student groups will be assigned to use different quantities of water with the same ground dye material in order for the class to compare how changing a step in the procedure can affect the color of the extracted dye. For example, one group will use 50 mL of ground material in 200 mL of water, and another group may use 400 mL of water. Varying the procedure just by one variable (water amount) helps the students to understand that dyeing a fabric is not a set in stone procedure, and there are many variations to the process that can be made, but these may result in slightly different results. The dyes are then used to color hemp, white wool, white silk, and white lace, etc. Using a nonbleached fiber without a sheen helps the dyeing process. The students examine which fiber took to which dyes the best. They address if the color is even or if

Synthetic Dyeing Process

In this unit, students compare the use of synthetic powder dyes similar in color to the natural dyes they made in class. The students identify the pros and cons of natural and synthetic dyeing and the hues formed on fibers. Students learn about pigments and precipitate reactions through a lab on the Synthesis of Prussian Blue and Synthetic Malachite. The article “Prussian Blue: Artists’ Pigments and Chemists Sponge”21 is read. The students also examine the effect of pH when dyeing different fibers. The students address the effect of pH on dyeing and whether there is an optimal pH for each fiber. The students find the pH of their dye solutions with a pH meter. The class learns about pH and the pH scale and learns how to determine hydrogen concentrations of a solution on the basis of the solution’s pH. In addition, students learn about the pH of household materials and how pH affects the color of natural dyes. Environmental Impact

This unit helps students question and evaluate the environmental impact of fashion as well as examine how different reagents in soaps and cleaners affect dyes on garments. The students conduct a lab that explores how different substances that contain acids and bases, oxidizing and reducing agents, and C

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experiment. A reference section in APA format is included in the proposal. The research proposal is handed in by the group, and each member of the group receives the same grade. The proposal is handed back graded and with suggestions to improve the study. The research groups meet with the professor to discuss ways to improve the research proposal before conducting the research in the lab. The final project is presented to the class by e-poster or by PowerPoint. The method is based on the way the school-wide symposium is structured, which allows the students to then easily present their work at the symposium. The final project consists of everything from the research proposal along with the addition of the data, represented in tables or graphs, the data analysis, and the conclusion. The conclusion includes how the results support or contradict the original hypothesis and, if possible, states the relationship that exists between the independent and dependent variables. In addition, the conclusion evaluates the experimental procedure and provides suggestions on changes to the design of the experiment and possible further study on this topic. The students present their research projects to the class. The head of the science department and any other available fashion or science professors are invited to come to the presentations. The students watching a presentation are expected to ask questions of their fellow colleagues’ projects. The professors visiting the class also ask questions. The session is set up as conference-style presentations of 15 min with 5 min of questions. Donuts and coffee are provided at this event. Because there are two sections of this course, students from one class will come to the presentation of the other class, dependent on students’ class schedules. After these presentations, 5−6 of the total presentations from the two classes are selected to go on to the symposium, which is a school-wide conference day devoted to students’ research achievements over the semester. These are chosen by discussing the best presentations with the department head as well as considering feedback from students, who are asked to write down the three presentations they learned the most from and what they learned. The following two examples highlight student-led research projects. The first, “The Journey of Cabbage: How the Method of Extracting the Dye Affects the Vibrancy and Colorfastness of the Dye”, examines the best dyeing technique to create a dye from purple cabbage. The students examined two different methods of extracting the dye from purple cabbage based on techniques they found in the research literature. They also, for comparison, reconstructed the dyeing process used in the beginning of the class. The two new methods follow: (i) puree the purple cabbage, and (ii) directly add the water to the beaker while crushing the purple cabbage strips. The third technique was the one used in class, which called for purple cabbage strips to be ground in a mortar and pestle. The students felt the mortar and pestle technique used in class left most of the color behind on the mortar and pestle. The students hypothesized that crushing the cabbage directly in the beaker would produce the strongest dye as opposed to the original method and the puree method, because they believed they lost dye between the transitions in the dyeing process. The students conducted the experiment controlling for mass of purple cabbage used, amount of water used, and the temperature of solution. They used strips of the same nonbleached cotton for all three methods, and they let each fabric swatch sit in the filtered dyes for 96 h. The results showed that the pureed cabbage came out more lavender in color but with not as uniform a color. Both the method used in

minerals (e.g., calcium and magnesium carbonates) affect the color of dyes. In addition, through two articles, “Bleaching with Green Oxidation Chemistry”22 and “Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of Clothing Industry”,14 students reflect on what they have learned and how they can apply this to their future roles in the fashion industry either as consumers or creators. Application: Student Research Projects

This unit focuses on the student research projects. The students design, conduct, and present original research in groups of two or three. The course culminates with students applying all that they learned through a self-designed inquiry project that expands one or more of the units studied in the class. This unit is intertwined with the other units in this course starting at week eight. Before students begin collecting their data in the lab, they write a research proposal. Throughout the course, as mentioned earlier, the students read research-based articles. They are allowed to use these articles in their proposal, but they still have to incorporate two new peer-reviewed articles. Some students use a research procedure found in an article and, then, in their data analysis, compare their results to the article’s findings. The students collect their data in class over approximately 2 weeks. Then, they share their experimental studies with the class in a conference-like setting. (The student research projects are discussed further in the Student Assessment section below.)

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STUDENT ASSESSMENT Students were assessed on the basis of the following: (1) Nine lab reports (24% of grade), (2) Worksheets on chemistry topics (10% of grade), (3) Leading a discussion and participating in discussions (6% of grade), (4) Two exams (28% of grade), (5) Research proposal (12% of grade), (6) Final research project (20% of grade). The worksheets were collected and graded to ensure the students were learning the chemical concepts covered in the class. The lab grade included pre- and postlab questions. If an article was read that overlapped the lab material, then some preand postlab questions would come from that article. This was done to make sure students read the article, but also to help the students understand how the articles read were related to the material covered in class. (Examples of postlab questions can be found in the Supporting Information.) Each research group led a discussion of an article, which was graded on a 10-point scale. The students leading the discussion were graded on their summary of the article and questions asked of the students. Participation in discussion is tracked and credited; that total was half of the 6% of the grade. The students were given two exams. The exams tested chemistry concepts covered as well as concepts incorporated in the lab work. The tests were a mixture of multiple choice, short answers, and an essay. (An example of a test question can be found in the Supporting Information.) The research proposal begins with an introduction to the topic, which incorporates at least three peer-reviewed research articles. The students frame their study with a research question followed by the identification of variables, both independent and dependent, and controls. The students make a hypothesis before conducting the experiment. The proposal includes a methods section with lists of the materials and procedure. The students also address safety issues they anticipate from their proposed D

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class and the method of crushing cabbage strips in the beaker produced a pink shade. However, the technique of crushing directly in the beaker came out more vibrant and held onto the color after washing. The students’ hypothesis was proven correct. The students concluded they would like to explore different vegetables to see whether the crushing in the beaker method holds up. In this second example, two students, while researching the literature for the research proposal, became influenced by Susan Fairlie’s article on “Dye Stuff in the Eighteenth Century”.23 In this article, the students read about 18th century powdered dyes of logwood, madder root, indigo, and goldenrod used to dye cotton, linen, wool, and silk. The article also highlighted how in the 18th century vinegar, bad wine, beer, and lemon juice had useful acids to help in the dyeing process. The students examined the effect an acidic fixative would have on these dyes from the 18th century. The students dyed muslin swatches with indigo, goldenrod, logwood, and madder root, and then, they used these same dyes but with a muslin swatch pretreated in a vinegar solution. The students hypothesized the vinegar pretreated fabric would improve the colorfastness of the dye. For their experiment students controlled for the amount of dye solution used, the amount of time the fiber stays in the dye solution, which was 48 h, and the temperature of the dye solution. The students found the fabrics treated with the acid fixative were a bolder color, while the untreated fabrics were a duller version of the same color. However, the pretreated fabric dyed in logwood was a little darker, but a little less even. The students hypothesized this could have been due to the vinegar not being evenly distributed in the solution. They speculated that using a magnetic stirrer may help create a better-mixed vinegar solution when pretreating the muslin fabric. The students did this experiment to see if the 18th century dyes were colorfast and if they could be used today to provide more environmentally friendly dyes. The students concluded that these 18th century dyes, which are less toxic and harmful to the environment, are an excellent alternative to today’s synthetic dyes, but that further research into pretreating the muslin would be useful. The following topics are a sample of student research questions for their projects in academic years 2016−2018: • Fire and Ice: How Does a Change in Dyeing Temperature Impact Colorfastness? • How Does Changing the Technique for Extracting the Dye from a Rose Change the Color Absorbed By The Fabric (Silk)? • How Colorfast Is the Natural Dye from Spinach on Three Different White Fibers (Cotton, Acetate, and 50/50 Cotton/Acetate) after the Three Fibers Are Pretreated with the Mordant of Alum? • Does the Amount of Thermal Energy (Heat) of a Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, and Violet Colored Synthetic Fiber (Polyester), after Heating for Twenty Minutes, Relate to Its Position on the Visible Spectrum? • Which Type of Teas (Black, Green, White, or Red), Following the Same Procedure, Create a Dye on Wool with the Greatest Colorfastness? • What Effect Does Changing the Mordant Used with Sunflower Seed Have on the Color Absorbed on Wool Fiber? • What Is the Effect of Saltwater vs Vinegar as a Fixative on Organic Cotton Dyed with Madder?

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EVALUATION OF THE COURSE

Instructor Reflection on the Course Content and Learning Progression

The first time teaching this new course, the research process was not adequately scaffolded throughout the course, and the students did not understand how to make a hypothesis, identify variables, and draw conclusions from their data. As a result of the student feedback at the end of the course, these concepts are now incorporated into the laboratories as we go along so that the students are aware of including these concepts into their original research. For example, as the course progresses, students write a hypothesis of results before conducting the assigned experiment. With each lab, feedback is provided on students’ written analysis to help them understand how to critically analyze data. In the mordant lab, students design their own procedure and then explain what worked and what went wrong. The goal is to help students understand the scientific process long before they develop their original research project. These changes help the students understand the research process in greater detail and feel more confident about doing their original research. Student Response to the Course

This course was offered twice a semester for five different semesters. Each class is approximately 80% female. The classes are roughly made up of 60% freshman and sophomores and 40% juniors and seniors. In the spring of 2017, the students from two Chemistry of Fashion classes completed a beginning and end of term survey with questions from the SALG (student assessment of their learning gains).24 The SALG is a web-based instrument that allows students to assess their perceptions of learning gains made over the duration of a course. The survey asked students to self-report the gains they experienced from taking this course about themes addressed in authentic research classes. Responses were anonymous. The study received institutional review board approval and informed consent from the students. Of the 34 students who took the survey, 17 were in each class. The students were asked how this course increased their understanding of collaborative work: 79.4% reported a good or great gain in working effectively in collaborative groups (Figure 1). Collaboration is integral to authentic activities. In learning that they can achieve success by working in collaboration with their colleagues, students also learn important skills for both this class and their future careers.25 An important aspect of teaching

Figure 1. Work effectively in collaborative settings. E

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students authentic research is to help them understand that science is often the result of collaboration, not a scientist working alone: this is why so much of the work done in the Chemistry of Fashion course was done in collaborative groups. The grade from the research project, which was a group grade, accounted for 32% of a student’s grade. A study that compared undergraduate biology laboratories, designed on the basis of on authentic research versus cookbook-style, found on a scale of small, moderate, and large gains that students in the authentic research lab course reported a large gain on collaborative work, consistent with what was observed in this fashion course.11 An important part of any lab-based course is students learning to collect, analyze, and synthesize appropriate data. When students were asked about gains they may have experienced in these skills, 91.2% of the students said they experienced good or great gain (Figure 2). These skills have been found to increase students’ autonomy and ability to think logically, which help them problem solve.25

Figure 3. Critically read articles about issues raised in class.

Figure 4. Able to apply what I learned in this class to other situations.

Figure 2. Collect, analyze, and synthesize appropriate data and sources effectively, ethically, and legally.

A desirable goal of authentic research in the classroom is to have students develop scientific literacy skills that help them make sense of science in their daily life.11 A large portion of this class was spent having students learn how to read peer-reviewed research articles and be able to apply the information to another situation through the lab work conducted in class and to their own research project. When the students were asked how much of a gain they experienced critically reading articles on issues in this class, the students reported a 67.6% good to great gain (Figure 3). This class was designed as an interdisciplinary class to help students understand how science affects their life in a way they may not have viewed before taking the class. When students were asked how much they gained in applying what they learned in the class to other situations, students reported an 82.4% good to great gain (Figure 4). The fashion professors also noted students incorporating concepts learned in this course to their fashion capstone projects. On this survey, the students were also asked if they had a gain knowing when to use appropriate tools to solve problems. The students reported 79.4% good to great gain (Figure 5). Students who feel more comfortable knowing how to problem solve have been found to have an increase in their scientific and student identity.25 When looking at the interdisciplinary nature of this

Figure 5. Able to use appropriate technological tools to solve problems.

course and how students connected ideas in this course to other classes outside this subject, the students were asked on the SALG survey how ideas from this class relate to ideas encountered in classes outside of this subject area. The students reported an 85.4% good to great gain (Figure 6). Courses that help students understand the relevancy of science to other topics give students a more positive attitude about science and more motivation to learn science.11 The greatest gains in the Chemistry of Fashion course were found in the students’ abilities to collect, analyze, and synthesize data. This gain may be a result of not just the independent project the students did but also the design of each lab to help F

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student’s interest in chemistry and the processes of scientific reasoning can help students appreciate the role of scientists and understand the role of chemistry in real-world activities. Further studies that examine the impact an authentic research class like this has on students’ use of science to make decisions in their daily life would be beneficial.

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ASSOCIATED CONTENT

* Supporting Information S

The Supporting Information is available on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00826. Course outline, including a schedule of the topics with relevant readings, lab sessions, student assignments, and research proposal tasks; hazards associated with any of the laboratories conducted in this course; and useful resources in the design of this course (PDF, DOCX)

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Figure 6. How ideas from this class relate to ideas encountered in classes outside of this subject class.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

the students build on their understanding of the materials and slowly keep expanding the students’ understanding of scientific inquiry. These scientific skills began with the students learning to write a hypothesis and moved to the students writing their own procedures later in the course and then comparing their results with those of other students such as in the Mordant lab. Scaffolding of laboratory skills throughout the course may have helped contribute to this large increase, as well as the independent research project. The lowest gain was found with students’ understanding of critically reading articles from the class. With the students’ research proposals, the literature review was often the weakest section, and many students struggled to synthesize past studies into their proposals. A majority of the students had little prior experience reading a research article, and in particular reading science articles, which may have contributed to the relatively low gain. A limitation of this study was that it was conducted on only 34 students from two classes over one semester. It would be helpful to replicate this study in other semesters and see whether the gains hold year to year.

*E-mail: [email protected]. ORCID

Karen A. Tallman: 0000-0002-3581-005X Notes

The author declares no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Kimberly Farrah for her support in my developing this course and the students who enrolled in the Chemistry of Fashion courses for their willingness to try new laboratories and provide valuable feedback; this was instrumental in the success of this course.

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REFERENCES

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CONCLUSION This course highlighted a subject matter, fashion, often not connected to chemistry and was met with enthusiasm by the students. The course was often at maximum capacity and frequently had a wait list. The course was designed around the students doing authentic research laboratories and then a collaborative research project designed by the students. The students showed good gains in working in collaborative settings, knowing how to gather and use data. The students also reported a better understanding of how chemistry relates to other classes and an ability to apply it to other situations. The students were also taught how to critically read science research articles; while that gain was not as high as the other gains, it did expose the students to science studies and their role in research. Overall, the students in the class developed more of an interest in chemistry. This study did not look directly at the correlation of students learning in chemistry and their application to their research projects, but this would be useful for further study. Authentic research courses for nonmajors in chemistry are helpful for students to understand how science data are collected, analyzed, and synthesized and are helpful for students to connect science ideas to other class situations. Piquing a G

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00826 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX