Activity Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Introducing Toxicology into the Undergraduate Chemistry Laboratory Using Safety Data Sheets and Sunscreen Activities Grace A. Lasker,*,† Nancy J. Simcox,‡ Karolina E. Mellor,§ Melissa L. Mullins,∥ Suzanne M. Nesmith,⊥ Saskia van Bergen,# and Paul T. Anastas∇ †
School of Nursing and Health Studies, University of Washington, Bothell, Washington 98011, United States Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States § School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States ∥ Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76798, United States ⊥ Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Baylor University Waco, Texas 76798, United States # Department of Ecology, Washington State, Lacey, Washington 98503, United States ∇ School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
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ABSTRACT: Toxicology and green chemistry have been adopted in research throughout academia, industry, and government. While significant progress has been made to explain how chemicals impact human health and the environment, there is still a lack of proper training to incorporate these concepts into the curriculum to prepare the next generation of scientists for interdisciplinary careers. The Molecular Design Research Network (MoDRN) has developed and class-tested activities that allow integration of green chemistry and toxicology concepts into an undergraduate or high school curriculum. These activities challenge students to think about Safety Data Sheets and the toxicological and environmental impacts of sunscreen products while meeting American Chemical Society’s Standards and Guidelines for curriculum development in the areas of Safety, Health, and Laboratory Experience. Survey data from class testing the Biology of Sunscreen Module found that 97% of students said the laboratory experiment positively impacted their choices and behaviors in regard to their health, while 84% said the laboratory experiment would alter their purchasing habits for sunscreen type. Learning objectives around lab safety, laboratory skills, and interdisciplinary approaches to problem-solving can be met using these activities to meet the needs of traditional chemistry curriculum for accreditation by using an interdisciplinary approach. KEYWORDS: Toxicology, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Laboratory Instruction, UV−Vis Spectroscopy, First-Year Undergraduate/General, Interdisciplinary/Multidisciplinary, Safety/Hazards, Curriculum, Enrichment/Review Material
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INTRODUCTION Advances in toxicology, sustainability, and environmental sciences have improved our knowledge of how chemicals can be associated with human health risks and environmental hazards, yet little progress is occurring to lower these hazards pre-emptively through chemical design considerations. The majority of chemistry students still receive little or no education in how chemical design impacts human health and the environment. Chemistry education plays a critical role in solving some of these challenges.1−6 As our society shifts toward greener, more sustainable materials, there is a growing demand for chemists to understand how toxicology can be integrated into the chemistry curriculum to limit the human and environmental impact of the molecules and materials we create. Research shows that active student engagement in science practices and the implications on sustainability and global impacts is critical for greater interest, science mastery, and indepth learning.7−9 Scientific learning and critical thinking among students increase by incorporating many factors into the learning experience such as connecting subdisciplines, repeating a set of core concepts within different contexts, relating inquiry-based laboratory skills to lecture courses, © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
integrating technology, and offering professional development for teachers that links them with scientists conducting modern research.10−18 Significant strides in educational programs, teaching tools, and learning materials have allowed science educators to integrate green chemistry principles into existing curricula at the high school, undergraduate, and graduate levels.4,6,19 A new educational framework involving multidisciplinary teams is emerging to provide chemists with an understanding of mechanistic and computational toxicology and new models of design application for the 21st century.5,8,20−25 With these predictive toxicology tools and scientific advances, science educators can now train the chemists of the future to design less hazardous chemicals and materials. The Molecular Design Research Network [MoDRN] is a multi-institutional collaboration that strives to develop guidelines for designing chemicals with reduced hazards and create educational modules for students and teachers at both the undergraduate and high school levels that allow integration of Received: July 30, 2018 Revised: February 4, 2019
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00408 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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these important concepts into curriculum.5,19,20 These modules were designed by the MoDRN Educational and Outreach Team (the authors of this paper) such that they can be easily inserted into existing lesson plans or can function as a standalone activity. These are available on the MoDRN Web site.26
to be watched before class begins. This lecture should contain an overview of the SDS and a brief introduction to key toxicology concepts important for the SDS analysis activity: acute versus chronic toxicity; LD50; LC50; Routes of Exposure. Other suggested readings for the prelab lecture include the “Chemical Hazard Awareness Module” developed by Beyond Benign and available at the Washington State Department of Ecology Web site.29
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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Sunscreen laboratory activities provide an opportunity for students to investigate functionality of different active ingredients through qualitative and quantitative techniques.21,22,27 However, these activities to date have not explored the hazards associated with various ingredients in sunscreen, and their environmental and health risks, nor how they influence student purchase and use patterns. The purpose of these MoDRN Module activities is to integrate principles of green chemistry, toxicology, and laboratory safety into the student’s active-learning experience and introduce interdisciplinary approaches to safer chemical design. These activities can be integrated into first or second year university courses (majors or nonmajors) or into a K−12 curriculum appropriate for the levels and learning outcomes of the students in those classes. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the MoDRN team, we chose to focus the MoDRN Module activities for multiple STEM disciplines (biology, environmental science, and chemistry), but they are also applicable in health, research, public health, toxicology, and other courses. The new Globally Harmonized System, a standardized approach to hazard communication, incorporates new requirements for how chemicals are classified, labeled, and evaluated for health and physical hazards. In 2015, new Safety Data Sheets (SDS) were required to include 16 sections designed for communicating the hazards of chemical products. SDSs were chosen as the hazard information tool introduced within the MoDRN Module activities to help students recognize and interpret relative hazards. These activities provide an opportunity for students to review the new SDS format with the 16 sections and discuss the limitations and advantages for communicating risks. They are conducted over two (or an optional third) periods. Each take 1.5−2 h, and the activities are best suited with an introduction to key concepts before the students begin work. Preparation time prior to the start of lab ranges from 15 to 60 min depending on the experiment.
Laboratory Period 2. MoDRN Module: Oxybenzone versus Zinc Oxide in Sunscreen for Chemistry Classrooms [Chemistry Sunscreen Module]
The purpose of this module is to test the efficiency of various sunscreens (oxybenzone-based versus zinc oxide-based) using UV spectrophotometry. This module meets the ACS requirements to introduce laboratory experience (Section 5.14) into the curriculum including performing accurate quantitative measurements, interpreting experimental results and drawing reasonable conclusions, and acquiring significant hands-on experience with appropriate instrumentation.28 For this activity, it is advised to present a 10−15 min “prelab” lecture or include a recording of the lecture as part of the flipped classroom material to be watched before class begins. This lecture should contain an overview of the UV spectrum, instructions for using a UV spectrophotometer (if not previously covered), and a short introduction to skin cancer and sunscreen (available from the University of Washington ATHENA Program Web site).30 Prior to the laboratory, two solutions should be prepared. Sunscreen stock no. 1 = 1 g of sunscreen with zinc oxide in 100 mL of warm isopropyl alcohol. Sunscreen stock no. 2 = 1 g of sunscreen with oxybenzone in 100 mL of warm isopropyl alcohol. Students are asked to analyze the absorption of the solutions using a spectrophotometer. They should begin at 290 nm and repeat the entire process at intervals of 10 nm from 290 to 400 nm. Oxybenzone is used in chemical-based sunscreens as a photoprotective agent against UVB and short-wave UVA rays with an absorption profile from 270 to 350 nm and absorption peaks at 288 and 350 nm. Zinc oxide works by reflecting or scattering UV rays or absorbing it (range ∼355−392 nm, with a peak around 370 nm) and converting it to infrared heat. Students chart the absorption versus the wavelength for each sunscreen stock solution using graph paper and then answer postlab questions around efficiency and mechanism of action. This activity pairs well with the optional activity presented at the end of the module (Analysis of Oxybenzone and Zinc Oxide SDS, which follows the same outline as the SDS Module above) to allow students to investigate topics of toxicity when considering personal preference and use based on their findings. This activity challenges students to think of products not just for use but for potential health impacts as well. The full laboratory with background instructor information, background student information, laboratory instructions, and postlab worksheet is available online.26
Laboratory Period 1. MoDRN Module: How to Read and Analyze a Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for Chemistry Classrooms [SDS Module]
The purpose of this SDS Module is to introduce the Safety Data Sheet (SDS). Students analyze several chemicals based on their SDS and rank the chemicals from safest to most hazardous. This module meets the American Chemical Society’s [ACS] requirements to integrate safety (Section 5.6) into the curriculum in the first two years of chemistry including principles of safety, recognition and identification of hazards, and assessment and evaluation of the risks of hazards.28 For this activity, students decide which criteria in the SDS they will use to determine their rankings. This allows for conversations about various sections of the SDS as students will undoubtedly choose different justifications (sections) for their rankings. It would be beneficial to choose three SDSs for chemicals you will use in your laboratory so that you can revisit the SDS and lab safety protocol throughout the curriculum. For this activity, it is advised to present a 10−15 min “prelab” lecture or include a recording of the lecture as part of the flipped classroom material
Optional Laboratory Period 3. MoDRN Module: Oxybenzone versus Zinc Oxide in Sunscreen for Biology Classrooms [Biology Sunscreen Module]
The purpose of this module is to demonstrate UV absorption using UV beads and blacklights. It is ideal for those classrooms that lack UV spectrophotometers or have limited access to laboratory space as this can be completed in a classroom or outside. UV beads, blacklights, and other items can be purchased online or at local retail stores. This module meets ACS requirements to demonstrate application of chemistry within B
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00408 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Information. Once prompted to think beyond the chemical characteristics into known human and environmental health risks, conversations shifted and rankings within groups tended to become divided. This was also a good opportunity to prompt students to consider acute toxicity versus chronic toxicity in their ranking system. After students ranked these chemicals, they wrote those rankings on the board, and we facilitated a discussion around their decision-making process used for their rankings: laboratory safety, consumer exposure through beauty and food products, and the lack of scientific data concerning human and environmental health research of new and existing chemicals. There is no correct answer for the rankings, and students were guided to consider that various rankings could be made considering differing criteria weights and inclusions/exclusions. For example, if flammability was used as a variable to determine and rank hazard potential, the ranking would differ from another group’s that considered carcinogenicity as a primary indicator of hazard. For the Chemistry Sunscreen Module and the Biology Sunscreen Module, students were able to determine that both the oxybenzone-based and the zinc oxide-based sunscreens work as advertised. Some shifts in the absorbance range are to be expected due to the difficulty of getting these sunscreens into solution, student expertise using a spectrophotometer, and machine variability. For the Biology Sunscreen Module, results will vary by the thickness and consistency of the sunscreen applied on the lid when determining penetrance of UV light through the sunscreen. At the end of the Chemistry Sunscreen Module and the Biology Sunscreen Module, students were prompted to complete an SDS analysis of the two sunscreens by revisiting the SDS Module activity, this time with oxybenzone and zinc oxide SDSs. Since the students had already completed this activity earlier in the quarter with the SDS Module activity assessing formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrochloric acid, they answered the questions and completed the hazard ranking much more quickly. This demonstrated acquired skills in SDS analysis, critical thinking, and information-gathering. We prompted the students to consider not just efficacy and toxicity but also how each sunscreen looked on the users. Oxybenzone-based sunscreens are designed to be absorbed and so “disappear” upon application. Zinc oxide-based sunscreens are not absorbed and so exist as a white layer on top of the skin. This prompted discussions around use concerns. Interestingly, when students were asked in postlab discussions which one they preferred to use, a majority favored oxybenzone despite the fact that overwhelmingly their SDS analysis and information-gathering led them to decide that zinc oxide was a safer product. This prompted discussion on the importance of designing safer chemicals with the user in mind, and that chemists must look beyond the beaker and toward the end-user to provide not just safer chemical products but also safer chemical products that consumers and companies actually want to use. Instructors described the principles of Green Chemistry and conversations about majoring and working in green chemistry during these activities. Data on the Biology Sunscreen Module was collected from 32 undergraduate students in environmental health (n = 11) and chronic toxicity and health (n = 21) classes. Students in an Introduction to Chemistry (n = 48) course helped class test this activity prior to use in the above two classes, but no data was collected during that class testing period. Instead, students
the health sciences for allied health and health science chemistry courses (Section 5.11). It also contributes to general chemistry laboratory skills (Section 5.14) by having students interpret experimental results, draw reasonable conclusions, and integrate safety (Section 5.6) by recognizing and identifying hazards and assessing and evaluating risks of hazards.28 Students test the ability of the following to block UV from turning the UV beads different colors upon exposure: nothing; lotion; and SPF 15, 30, and 50 for both oxybenzone-based and zinc oxide-based sunscreens. The UV beads are placed into a clear box with a lid, and the various sunscreens or lotion are applied to the lid of the box for testing. The lid acts like a barrier, just like skin, and gives students an opportunity to see the cause and effect of a sunscreen. Students are asked to make predictions about the efficacy of the different variables (none, lotion, and the various SPFs for the two different types of sunscreen) and then expose the box of UV beads with each version to the blacklight for 10−15 s. They record their observations and determine the accuracy of their predictions. They are then asked to connect the outcomes of their experiment with broader implications to health and safety. This activity is well-suited to pair with its optional activity (Analysis of Oxybenzone and Zinc Oxide SDS, which follows the same outline as the SDS Module above) to allow for conversations of efficiency, toxicology, and human health and environmental hazard considerations when using consumer products with chemical ingredients. The full laboratory with background instructor information, background student information, laboratory instructions, and postlab worksheet is available online.26
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HAZARDS This laboratory uses commercially available sunscreen products designed to be applied to the skin. Students with allergies to sunscreen should use gloves. Isopropyl alcohol is flammable and should not be used near open flames. Traditional chemistry laboratory safety rules should be used, including UV goggles, gloves, and lab coats. These activities were designed to be low hazard and have a low ecological impact for disposal.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
These activities were class tested by MoDRN’s education and outreach team in courses with undergraduate students enrolled in environmental health (n = 11), introduction to general chemistry (n = 48), and chronic toxicity and health (n = 21). For the SDS Module, we used the following SDSs: formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrochloric acid. Other suggested chemicals include isopropyl alcohol or other materials commonly used in the student’s laboratory experiments, or chemicals found in every day products such as bleach, diethyl phthalate, vinyl chloride, atrazine, ethylene glycol, and aspirin, among others. Students had little prior knowledge of formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrochloric acid before the activity, with hydrochloric acid being the most known and benzene being the least known. Students were divided into groups of 3−4 and asked to answer the questions in the activity. Additionally, they were asked to rank the three chemicals from safest to most hazardous. At the beginning of the activity, students relied primarily on Section 2 Hazards Identification and Section 4 First Aid Measures to guide their comparison. Most groups had to be challenged to consider other sections of the SDS, including Section 11 Toxicological Information and Section 12 Ecological C
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by MoDRN. The Biology Sunscreen Module was adapted with permission from material created by participants in The Academy for Teaching about Health and Environment Interactions (ATHENA), a program of the University of Washington Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health. This material is based upon work supported by the NSF Division of Chemistry and the Environmental Protection Agency through a program of Networks for Sustainable Molecular Design and Synthesis, Grant 1339637.
provided summative feedback to the professor for further development of the module and how best to collect “impact” data. The class testing helped the instructor write relevant postlab questions to assess the activity’s impact on potentiality for behavior change around sunscreen purchasing habits due to increase toxicological awareness. These questions were integrated into postlab, small-group, and all-class discussions around reflection on consumer behavior choices: 1. How will this activity impact your choices and behaviors in regard to your health? 2. Will you make a conscious decision to alter your purchases? In regard to question 1, for n = 32, 97% said that the laboratory experiment positively impacted their choices and behaviors in regard to their health. In regard to question 2, for n = 32, 84% said that this laboratory experiment would alter their purchasing habits of sunscreen type toward zinc oxide-based sunscreens.
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CONCLUSION Research has shown that there are positive learning outcomes when students are provided information within a context of greater relevancy to sustainability and health impacts.31,32 Even more important is to contextualize learning, allowing students to bring their “own world” into the chemistry classroom. By scaffolding concepts of toxicology into the chemistry classroom using every day items such as sunscreen, students see connections between the “real world” and chemistry. These activities contribute toward the ACS chemistry curriculum learning objectives that meet accreditation requirements by using an interdisciplinary approach in the areas of laboratory safety, laboratory skills, and health and environmental connections. Not only were students engaged in these activities, but a large majority of students in the postlab questions completed after the activity expressed a desire to immediately change their sunscreen use toward a safer zinc oxide-based version even though students initially favored oxybenzone products when prompted in discussions around preference and use factors during the activity. Students also expressed a desire to make note of more products that they use in terms of toxicity and chemical ingredients.
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REFERENCES
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. ORCID
Grace A. Lasker: 0000-0001-5848-5547 Nancy J. Simcox: 0000-0001-7920-023X Paul T. Anastas: 0000-0003-4777-5172 Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge the University of Washington Bothell and Lake Washington Institute of Technology students who helped pilot these laboratories, the laboratory technicians at both institutions, and the staff and graduate students at the Center for Green Chemistry and Green Engineering, Yale University, who helped troubleshoot the experiments. All modules were developed and published jointly D
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(16) Koker, M. T.; Thier, H. In Learning About Environmental Health Risks: An Evaluation Study of the SEPUP Investigating Environmental Helath Risks; Science Education for Public Understanding Program: Berkeley, CA, 1994. (17) Koker, M. In SEPUP in Philidelphia: An Impact Study of SEPUP on Teachers and Students; Science Education for Public Understanding Program: Berkeley, CA, 1992. (18) Purcell, S. C.; Pande, P.; Lin, Y. X.; Rivera, E. J.; Paw U, L.; Smallwood, L. M.; Kerstiens, G. A.; Armstrong, L. B.; Robak, M. T.; Baranger, A. M.; Douskey, M. C. Extraction and Antibacterial Properties of Thyme Leaf Extracts: Authentic Practice of Green Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (8), 1422−1427. (19) Coish, P.; Brooks, B. W.; Gallagher, E. P.; Mills, M.; Kavanagh, T. J.; Simcox, N.; Lasker, G. A.; Botta, D.; Schmuck, S. C.; VoutchkovaKostal, A.; Kostal, J.; Mullins, M. L.; Nesmith, S. M.; Mellor, K. E.; Corrales, J.; Kristofco, L. A.; Saari, G. N.; Steele, W. B.; Shen, L. Q.; Melnikov, F.; Zimmerman, J. B.; Anastas, P. T. The Molecular Design Research Network: An Overview. Toxicol. Sci. 2018, 161 (2), 241−248. (20) Mellor, K.; Coish, P.; Brooks, B.; Gallagher, E.; Mills, M.; Kavanagh, T.; Simcox, N.; Lasker, G.; Botta, D.; Voutchkova-Kostal, A.; Kostal, J.; Mullins, M.; Nesmith, S.; Corrales, J.; Kristofco, L.; Saari, G.; Steele, B.; Melnikov, F.; Zimmerman, J.; Anastas, P. The Safer Chemical Design Game. Gamification of Green Chemistry and Safer Design Concepts for High School and Undergraduate Students. Green Chem. Lett. Rev. 2018, 11 (2), 103−110. (21) Trupp, T. Putting UV-Sensitive Beads to the Test. J. Chem. Educ. 2001, 78 (5), 648A. (22) Guedens, W. J.; Reynders, M.; Van den Rul, H.; Elen, K.; Hardy, A.; Van Bael, M. K. ZnO-Based Sunscreen: The Perfect Example to Introduce Nanoparticles in an Undergraduate or High School Chemistry Lab. J. Chem. Educ. 2014, 91 (2), 259−263. (23) Rusyn, I.; Daston, G. P. Computational Toxicology: Realizing the Promise of the Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118 (8), 1047−1050. (24) Voutchkova, A. M.; Osimitz, T. G.; Anastas, P. T. Toward a Comprehensive Molecular Design Framework for Reduced Hazard. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110 (10), 5845−5882. (25) Zimmerman, J. B.; Anastas, P. T.; Miller, G. W. Green Chemistry as a Leadership Opportunity for Toxicology: We Must Take the Wheel. Toxicol. Sci. 2014, 141 (1), 4−5. (26) Molecular Design Research Network. Teacher’s Modules. https://modrn.yale.edu/education/high-school-curriculum/teachersmodules (accessed February 2019). (27) Moeur, H. P.; Zanella, A.; Poon, T. An Introduction to UV-Vis Spectroscopy Using Sunscreens. J. Chem. Educ. 2006, 83 (5), 769. (28) American Chemical Society. Curriculum. https://www.acs.org/ content/acs/en/education/policies/twoyearcollege/curriculum.html (accessed February 2019). (29) Washington State Department of Ecology. Chemical Hazard Awareness Module. https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/ documents/1704037.pdf (accessed February 2019). (30) University of Washington ATHENA Program. http://depts. washington.edu/ceeh/educators/athena.html (accessed January 2019). (31) Cromley, J. G.; Perez, T.; Kaplan, A. Undergraduate STEM Achievement and Retention Cognitive, Motivational, and Institutional Factors and Solutions. Policy Insights Behav Brain Sci. 2016, 3 (1), 4−11. (32) Prince, M.; Felder, R. The Many Faces of Inductive Teaching and Learning. J. Coll Sci. Teach 2007, 36 (5), 14.
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